Armchair Travels

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail_Kadare

Robert Elsie, Enver Hoxha : The Iron Fist of Albania
Miranda Vickers : The Albanians: A Modern History
Tajar Zavalani: History of Albania
Robert Carver: The Accursed Mountains: Journeys in Albania
Fred C Abrahams: Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy in Europe
Marcus Tanner: Albania’s Mountain Queen: Edith Durham and the Balkans
M Edith Durham: High Albania
Robin Hanbury-Tenison: Land of Eagles: Riding Through Europe’s Forgotten Country

Film, “Dear Albania”, with Eliza Dushku

Film, “Besa”

(“Besa” – Albanian Word of Honour)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Camus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasmina_Khadra

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahlam_Mosteghanemi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souad_Massi

Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic, Tamazight and French, has been strongly influenced by the country’s recent history. Famous novelists of the 20th century include Mohammed Dib, Albert Camus, Kateb Yacine and Ahlam Mosteghanemi while Assia Djebar is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were Rachid Mimouni, later vice-president of Amnesty International, and Tahar Djaout, murdered by an Islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views.

Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste (modern-day Souk Ahras); and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while staying in Algeria. The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author Apuleius was born in Madaurus (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria.

The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the Numidian and Roman African era, when Apuleius wrote The Golden Ass, the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known Augustine of Hippo, Nonius Marcellus and Martianus Capella, among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionized the Arab world literature, with authors like Ahmad al-Buni, Ibn Manzur and Ibn Khaldoun, who wrote the Muqaddimah while staying in Algeria, and many others.

Albert Camus was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature.

Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French.

As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the Algerian trilogy of Mohammed Dib, or even Nedjma of Kateb Yacine novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include Mouloud Feraoun, Malek Bennabi, Malek Haddad, Moufdi Zakaria, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, Mouloud Mammeri, Frantz Fanon, and Assia Djebar.

In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are Rachid Boudjedra, Rachid Mimouni, Leila Sebbar, Tahar Djaout and Tahir Wattar.

Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, the swallows of Kabul and the attack of Yasmina Khadra, the oath of barbarians of Boualem Sansal, memory of the flesh of Ahlam Mosteghanemi and the last novel by Assia Djebar nowhere in my father’s House.

Chaâbi music is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (Popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music is El Hadj M’Hamed El Anka. The Constantinois Malouf style is saved by musician from whom Mohamed Tahar Fergani is a performer.

Folk music styles include Bedouin music, characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the Aurès Mountains. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. Souad Massi is a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include Manel Filali in Germany and Kenza Farah in France. Tergui music is sung in Tuareg languages generally, Tinariwen had a worldwide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in Sétif and remains a unique style of its kind.

Modern music is available in several facets, Raï music is a style typical of Western Algeria. Rap, relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorra

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komitas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayat-Nova
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duduk
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram_Khachaturian
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djivan_Gasparyan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peyo_Yavorov

Book, Vasily Grossman, An Armenian Sketchbook
Book, Philip Marsden, The Crossing Place

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Winton
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Murnane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bahamas

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbados

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belize

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botswana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Vazov
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yordan_Radichkov
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzvetan_Todorov
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elias_Canetti
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peyo_Yavorov

Book, Timothy Rice, “May It Fill Your Soul”
Book, Timothy Rice, “Music in Bulgaria”
Film, Timothy Rice, “May It Fill Your Soul”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaval
Unlike the transverse flute, the kaval is fully open at both ends, and is played by blowing on the sharpened edge of one end. The kaval has 8 playing holes (7 in front and 1 in the back for the thumb) and usually 4 more near the bottom of the kaval. These holes are not used for playing the instrument, but determine the lowest tone’s pitch and timbre and are supposed to improve tone and intonation. In Bulgaria they are known as “devil’s holes”, based on a folk tale in which the devil tries to out-play a shepherd in a musical duel. While the shepherd is sleeping, the devil drilled holes in the shepherd’s kaval but instead of ruining the kaval, this only served to enhance the shepherd’s kaval playing thus thwarting the devil. In Macedonia they are known as “glasnici” (гласници) meaning “giving voice to/of”.

http://www.bulgariankaval.com/index.html

Book, Pat MacSwyney, Kaval:Traditional Folk Melodies for Balkan & Anatolian Folk Flute
Book, Kapka Kassabova, Border: A Journey to the Edge of Europe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Faso

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouagadougou

Burkina Faso (UK: /bɜːrˌkiːnə ˈfæsoʊ/, US: /ˈfɑːsoʊ/ (  listen); French: [buʁkina faso]) is a landlocked country in West Africa. It covers an area of around 274,200 square kilometres (105,900 sq mi) and is surrounded by six countries: Mali to the north; Niger to the east; Benin to the southeast; Togo and Ghana to the south; and Ivory Coast to the southwest. Its capital is Ouagadougou. In 2014 its population was estimated at just over 17.3 million. Burkina Faso is a francophone country, with French as an official language of government and business. Formerly called the Republic of Upper Volta (1958–1984), the country was renamed “Burkina Faso” on 4 August 1984 by then-President Thomas Sankara. Its citizens are known as Burkinabé (/bɜːrˈkiːnəbeɪ/ bur-KEE-nə-beh).

Literature in Burkina Faso is based on the oral tradition, which remains important. In 1934, during French occupation, Dim-Dolobsom Ouedraogo published his Maximes, pensées et devinettes mossi (Maximes, Thoughts and Riddles of the Mossi), a record of the oral history of the Mossi people.

The oral tradition continued to have an influence on Burkinabè writers in the post-independence Burkina Faso of the 1960s, such as Nazi Boni and Roger Nikiema. The 1960s saw a growth in the number of playwrights being published. Since the 1970s, literature has developed in Burkina Faso with many more writers being published.

The theatre of Burkina Faso combines traditional Burkinabè performance with the colonial influences and post-colonial efforts to educate rural people to produce a distinctive national theatre. Traditional ritual ceremonies of the many ethnic groups in Burkina Faso have long involved dancing with masks. Western-style theatre became common during colonial times, heavily influenced by French theatre. With independence came a new style of theatre inspired by forum theatre aimed at educating and entertaining Burkina Faso’s rural people.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Faso)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burundi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phnom_Penh
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkor_Wat
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Cambodia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuol_Sleng_Genocide_Museum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preah_Ko_Preah_Keo

Various factors contribute to the Cambodian culture including Theravada Buddhism, Hinduism, French colonialism, Angkorian culture, and modern globalisation. The Cambodian Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts is responsible for promoting and developing Cambodian culture. Cambodian culture not only includes the culture of the lowland ethnic majority, but also some 20 culturally distinct hill tribes colloquially known as the Khmer Loeu, a term coined by Norodom Sihanouk to encourage unity between the highlanders and lowlanders.

Rural Cambodians wear a krama scarf which is a unique aspect of Cambodian clothing. The sampeah is a traditional Cambodian greeting or a way of showing respect to others. Khmer culture, as developed and spread by the Khmer empire, has distinctive styles of dance, architecture and sculpture, which have been exchanged with neighbouring Laos and Thailand throughout history. Angkor Wat (Angkor means “city” and Wat “temple”) is the best preserved example of Khmer architecture from the Angkorian era along with hundreds of other temples that have been discovered in and around the region.

Traditionally, the Khmer people have a recorded information on Tra leaves. Tra leaf books record legends of the Khmer people, the Ramayana, the origin of Buddhism and other prayer books. They are taken care of by wrapping in cloth to protect from moisture and the climate.

Bon Om Tuuk (Festival of Boat Racing), the annual boat rowing contest, is the most attended Cambodian national festival. Held at the end of the rainy season when the Mekong river begins to sink back to its normal levels allowing the Tonle Sap River to reverse flow, approximately 10% of Cambodia’s population attends this event each year to play games, give thanks to the moon, watch fireworks, dine, and attend the boat race in a carnival-type atmosphere.

Popular games include soccer, kicking a sey, which is similar to a footbag, and chess. Based on the classical Indian solar calendar and Theravada Buddhism, the Cambodian New Year is a major holiday that takes place in April. Recent artistic figures include singers Sinn Sisamouth and Ros Serey Sothea (and later Meng Keo Pichenda), who introduced new musical styles to the country.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia)

Loung Hung, First They Killed My Father / After They Killed Our Father
Haing Ngor, Survival in the Killing Fields
François Bizot, The Gate
Jon Swain, River of Time
Joel Brinkley, Cambodia’s Curse : The Modern History of a Troubled Land
Norman Lewis, A Dragon Apparent : Travels in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam

Film, The Killing Fields
Film, Spalding Gray, Swimming to Cambodia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaoundé
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musgum_mud_huts

Estimates identify anywhere from 230 to 282 different folks and linguistic groups in Cameroon. The Adamawa Plateau broadly bisects these into northern and southern divisions. The northern peoples are Sudanese groups, who live in the central highlands and the northern lowlands, and the Fulani, who are spread throughout northern Cameroon. A small number of Shuwa Arabs live near Lake Chad. Southern Cameroon is inhabited by speakers of Bantu and Semi-Bantu languages. Bantu-speaking groups inhabit the coastal and equatorial zones, while speakers of Semi-Bantu languages live in the Western grassfields. Some 5,000 Gyele and Baka Pygmy peoples roam the southeastern and coastal rainforests or live in small, roadside settlements. Nigerians make up the largest group of foreign nationals.

Cameroonian literature has concentrated on both European and African themes. Colonial-era writers such as Louis-Marie Pouka and Sankie Maimo were educated by European missionary societies and advocated assimilation into European culture as the means to bring Cameroon into the modern world. After World War II, writers such as Mongo Beti and Ferdinand Oyono analysed and criticised colonialism and rejected assimilation

Music and dance are an integral part of Cameroonian ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling. Traditional dances are highly choreographed and separate men and women or forbid participation by one sex altogether. The goals of dances range from pure entertainment to religious devotion. Traditionally, music is transmitted orally. In a typical performance, a chorus of singers echoes a soloist.

Musical accompaniment may be as simple as clapping hands and stomping feet, but traditional instruments include bells worn by dancers, clappers, drums and talking drums, flutes, horns, rattles, scrapers, stringed instruments, whistles, and xylophones; the exact combination varies with ethnic group and region. Some performers sing complete songs by themselves, accompanied by a harplike instrument.

Popular music styles include ambasse bey of the coast, assiko of the Bassa, mangambeu of the Bangangte, and tsamassi of the Bamileke. Nigerian music has influenced Anglophone Cameroonian performers, and Prince Nico Mbarga’s highlife hit “Sweet Mother” is the top-selling African record in history.

The two most popular styles of music are makossa and bikutsi. Makossa developed in Douala and mixes folk music, highlife, soul, and Congo music. Performers such as Manu Dibango, Francis Bebey, Moni Bilé, and Petit-Pays popularised the style worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s. Bikutsi originated as war music among the Ewondo. Artists such as Anne-Marie Nzié developed it into a popular dance music beginning in the 1940s, and performers such as Mama Ohandja and Les Têtes Brulées popularised it internationally during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon)

Christraud M. Geary and Hans-Joachim Koloss, Cameroon – Art of the Kings (Rietberg Museum, Zurich)
Dervla Murphy, Cameroon with Egbert

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Munro
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Atwood
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Ondaatje

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively. There are four major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature; nature, frontier life, Canada’s position within the world, all three of which tie into the garrison mentality. By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world’s best. Canada’s ethnic and cultural diversity are reflected in its literature, with many of its most prominent modern writers focusing on ethnic life. Arguably, the best-known living Canadian writer internationally (especially since the deaths of Robertson Davies and Mordecai Richler) is Margaret Atwood, a prolific novelist, poet, and literary critic. Numerous other Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards; including Nobel Laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English; and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who is perhaps best known for the novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Gould

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Verde
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mito_Elias
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yara_dos_Santos
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arménio_Vieira

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_African_Republic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangui

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%27Djamena
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad_National_Museum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad_Cultural_Centre
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tijaniyyah

As in other Sahelian countries, literature in Chad has seen an economic, political and spiritual drought that has affected its best known writers. Chadian authors have been forced to write from exile or expatriate status and have generated literature dominated by themes of political oppression and historical discourse. Since 1962, 20 Chadian authors have written some 60 works of fiction. Among the most internationally renowned writers are Joseph Brahim Seïd, Baba Moustapha, Antoine Bangui and Koulsy Lamko. In 2003 Chad’s sole literary critic, Ahmat Taboye, published his Anthologie de la littérature tchadienne to further knowledge of Chad’s literature internationally and among youth and to make up for Chad’s lack of publishing houses and promotional structure.

The music of Chad includes a number of unusual instruments such as the kinde, a type of bow harp; the kakaki, a long tin horn; and the hu hu, a stringed instrument that uses calabashes as loudspeakers. Other instruments and their combinations are more linked to specific ethnic groups: the Sara prefer whistles, balafones, harps and kodjo drums; and the Kanembu combine the sounds of drums with those of flute-like instruments.

The music group Chari Jazz formed in 1964 and initiated Chad’s modern music scene. Later, more renowned groups such as African Melody and International Challal attempted to mix modernity and tradition. Popular groups such as Tibesti have clung faster to their heritage by drawing on sai, a traditional style of music from southern Chad. The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music. However, in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists. Piracy and a lack of legal protections for artists’ rights remain problems to further development of the Chadian music industry.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Neruda
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Donoso
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Bolaño

Motto: “Por la razón o la fuerza” (English: “By Right or Might”)

There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile. According to 17th-century Spanish chronicler Diego de Rosales, the Incas called the valley of the Aconcagua “Chili” by corruption of the name of a Picunche tribal chief (“cacique”) called Tili, who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest in the 15th century. Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili.

Other theories say Chile may derive its name from a Native American word meaning either “ends of the earth” or “sea gulls”; from the Mapuche word chilli, which may mean “where the land ends;” or from the Quechua chiri, “cold”, or tchili, meaning either “snow” or “the deepest point of the Earth”. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a bird locally known as trile.

The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro’s first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535–36 called themselves the “men of Chilli”. Ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling “Chili” was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching to “Chile”.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile)

Literature

Chile is a country of poets. Gabriela Mistral was the first Latin American to receive a Nobel Prize in Literature (1945). Chile’s most famous poet is Pablo Neruda, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature (1971) and is world-renowned for his extensive library of works on romance, nature, and politics. His three highly personalized homes in Isla Negra, Santiago and Valparaíso are popular tourist destinations.

Among the list of other Chilean poets are Carlos Pezoa Véliz, Vicente Huidobro, Gonzalo Rojas, Pablo de Rokha, Nicanor Parra and Raúl Zurita. Isabel Allende is the best-selling Chilean novelist, with 51 millions of her novels sold worldwide. Novelist José Donoso’s novel The Obscene Bird of Night is considered by critic Harold Bloom to be one of the canonical works of 20th-century Western literature. Another internationally recognized Chilean novelist and poet is Roberto Bolaño whose translations into English have had an excellent reception from the critics.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_China

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangshan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Mountains_of_China

www.chinachannel.co/
www.matthewbrennan.info/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese_poetry_forms
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_poetry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanzang

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu_Xun
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qian_Zhongshu

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_classical_pianists

Chinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou dynasty. Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of thoughts and subjects including calendar, military, astrology, herbology, geography and many others. Some of the most important early texts include the I Ching and the Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state-sponsored curriculum in dynastic era. Inherited from the Classic of Poetry, classical Chinese poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. Li Bai and Du Fu opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively. Chinese historiography began with the Shiji, the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and folklore. Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and gods and demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels which include Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West and Dream of the Red Chamber. Along with the wuxia fictions of Jin Yong and Liang Yusheng, it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the East Asian cultural sphere.

In the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun were pioneers in modern literature. Various literary genres, such as misty poetry, scar literature, young adult fiction and the xungen literature, which is influenced by magic realism, emerged following the Cultural Revolution. Mo Yan, a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiao_(flute)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Chu_(singer)
http://www.zhangchu.com/

Book, Edward Slingerland, Effortless Action : Wu-Wei As Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China
Book, Frank Dikötter, Mao’s Great Famine
Book, Rob Lilwall : Walking Home from Mongolia : Ten Million Steps Through China, From the Gobi Desert to the South China Sea

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai_Weiwei

Film/DVD, The Chinese Lives of Uli Sigg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogotá

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Porras
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_Malandro
www.malandro.ch/

(Omar) (Alejandro) (Cristina) (Mateo)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoros
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroni,_Comoros

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazzaville

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinshasa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Rica
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_José,_Costa_Rica

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory_Coast

Ivory Coast’s political capital is Yamoussoukro, and its economic capital and largest city is the port city of Abidjan.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanella_Boni
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9ronique_Tadjo
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Bandaman
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Binlin_Dadi%C3%A9

Music
Each of the ethnic groups in Ivory Coast has its own music genres, most showing strong vocal polyphony. Talking drums are also common, especially among the Appolo, and polyrhythms, another African characteristic, are found throughout Ivory Coast and are especially common in the southwest.

Popular music genres from Ivory Coast include zoblazo, zouglou, and Coupé-Décalé. A few Ivorian artists who have known international success are Magic Système, Alpha Blondy, Meiway, Dobet Gnahoré, Tiken Jah Fakoly, and Christina Goh, of Ivorian descent.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Blondy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monique_S%C3%A9ka
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiken_Jah_Fakoly

(Véronique)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagreb

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti_(city)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominica
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roseau

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Republic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santo_Domingo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Timor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dili

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuador
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quito

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo

Singer, Sherine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Salvador
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Salvador

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrea

Music
Temesgen Fishaye CheAy
Amanuel Goitom
Abera Beyene

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallinn

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addis_Ababa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiji
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suva

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Finland

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libreville

A country with a primarily oral tradition up until the spread of literacy in the 21st century, Gabon is rich in folklore and mythology. “Raconteurs” are currently working to keep traditions alive such as the mvett among the Fangs and the ingwala among the Nzebis.

Gabon also features internationally celebrated masks, such as the n’goltang (Fang) and the reliquary figures of the Kota. Each group has its own set of masks used for various reasons. They are mostly used in traditional ceremonies such as marriage, birth and funerals. Traditionalists mainly work with rare local woods and other precious materials.

Gabonese music is lesser-known in comparison with regional giants like the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Cameroon. The country boasts an array of folk styles, as well as pop stars like Patience Dabany and Annie-Flore Batchiellilys, a Gabonese singer and renowned live performer. Also known are guitarists like Georges Oyendze, La Rose Mbadou and Sylvain Avara, and the singer Oliver N’Goma.

Gabonese folk instruments include the obala, the ngombi (fr), the balafon and traditional drums.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gambia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banjul

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serekunda

The Gambia (/ˈɡæmbiə/ (  listen)), officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa that is entirely surrounded by Senegal except for its coastline on the Atlantic Ocean at its western end. It is the smallest country on mainland Africa.

The Gambia is situated on either side of the Gambia River, the nation’s namesake, which flows through the centre of The Gambia and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its area is 10,689 square kilometres (4,127 sq mi) with a population of 1,857,181 as of the April 2013 census. Banjul is the Gambian capital and the largest cities are Serekunda and Brikama.

www.thelittlebaobab.com

Books
Simon Fenton, Squirting Milk at Chameleons
Simon Fenton, Chasing Hornbills

(Aisha) (Simon)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tbilisi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Georgia_(country)

Georgia (/ˈdʒɔːrdʒə/ ; Georgian: საქართველო, translit.: sakartvelo, IPA: [sɑkʰɑrtʰvɛlɔ] is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea, to the north by Russia, to the south by Turkey and Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan. The capital and largest city is Tbilisi.

Georgian culture evolved over thousands of years from its foundations in the Iberian and Colchian civilizations. Georgian culture enjoyed a renaissance and golden age of classical literature, arts, philosophy, architecture and science in the 11th century. Georgian culture was influenced by Classical Greece, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the various Iranian empires (notably the Achaemenid, Parthian, Sassanian, Safavid and Qajar empires), and later, from the 19th century, by the Russian Empire.

The Georgian language, and the Classical Georgian literature of the poet Shota Rustaveli, were revived in the 19th century after a long period of turmoil, laying the foundations of the romantics and novelists of the modern era such as Grigol Orbeliani, Nikoloz Baratashvili, Ilia Chavchavadze, Akaki Tsereteli, Vazha-Pshavela. The Georgian language is written in three unique scripts, which according to traditional accounts were invented by King Pharnavaz I of Iberia in the 3rd century BC.

Georgia is known for its folklore, traditional music, dances, theatre, cinema, and art. Notable painters from the 20th century include Niko Pirosmani, Lado Gudiashvili, Elene Akhvlediani; notable ballet choreographers include George Balanchine, Vakhtang Chabukiani, and Nino Ananiashvili; notable poets include Galaktion Tabidze, Lado Asatiani, and Mukhran Machavariani; and notable theatre and film directors include Robert Sturua, Tengiz Abuladze, Giorgi Danelia and Otar Ioseliani.

Music
Georgia has an ancient musical tradition, which is primarily known for its early development of polyphony. Georgian polyphony is based on three vocal parts, a unique tuning system based on perfect fifths, and a harmonic structure rich in parallel fifths and dissonances. Three types of polyphony have developed in Georgia: a complex version in Svaneti, a dialogue over a bass background in the Kakheti region, and a three-part partially-improvised version in western Georgia.The Georgian folk song “Chakrulo” was one of 27 musical compositions included on the Voyager Golden Records that were sent into space on Voyager 2 on 20 August 1977.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_philosophy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accra

The Ghanaian national literature radio programme and accompanying publication Voices of Ghana was one of the earliest on the African continent. The most prominent Ghanaian authors are novelists; J. E. Casely Hayford, Ayi Kwei Armah and Nii Ayikwei Parkes, who gained international acclaim with the books, Ethiopia Unbound (1911), The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1968) and Tail of the Blue Bird (2009), respectively. In addition to novels, other literature arts such as Ghanaian theatre and poetry have also had a very good development and support at the national level with prominent Ghanaian playwrights and poets Joe de Graft and Efua Sutherland.

The music of Ghana is diverse and varies between different ethnic groups and regions. Ghanaian music incorporates several distinct types of musical instruments such as the talking drum ensembles, Akan Drum, goje fiddle and koloko lute, court music, including the Akan Seperewa, the Akan atumpan, the Ga kpanlogo styles, and log xylophones used in asonko music. The most well known genres to have come from Ghana are African jazz, which was created by Ghanaian artist Kofi Ghanaba, and its earliest form of secular music, called highlife. Highlife originated in the late 19th century and early 20th century and spread throughout West Africa. In the 1990s a new genre of music was created by the youth incorporating the influences of highlife, Afro-reggae, dancehall and hiphop. This hybrid was called hiplife. Ghanaian artists such as “Afro Roots” singer, activist and songwriter Rocky Dawuni, R&B and soul singer Rhian Benson and Sarkodie have had international success. In December 2015, Rocky Dawuni became the first Ghanaian musician to be nominated for a Grammy award in the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album category for his 6th studio album titled Branches of The Same Tree released 31 March 2015.

Ghanaian dance is as diverse as its music, and there are traditional dances and different dances for different occasions. The most known Ghanaian dances are those for celebrations. These dances include the Adowa, Kpanlogo, Azonto, Klama, and Bamaya.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozwald_Boateng
Film, Ozwald Boateng, A Man’s Story

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port-au-Prince

Haiti has always been a literary nation that has produced poetry, novels, and plays of international recognition. The French colonial experience established the French language as the venue of culture and prestige, and since then it has dominated the literary circles and the literary production. However, since the eighteenth century there has been a sustained effort to write in Haitian Creole. The recognition of Creole as an official language has led to an expansion of novels, poems, and plays in Creole. In 1975, Franketienne was the first to break with the French tradition in fiction with the publication of Dezafi, the first novel written entirely in Haitian Creole. The work offers a poetic picture of Haitian life.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honduras
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tegucigalpa

Punta is the main music of Honduras, with other sounds such as Caribbean salsa, merengue, reggae, and reggaeton all widely heard, especially in the north, and Mexican rancheras heard in the rural interior of the country.

Legends and fairy tales are paramount in Honduran culture. Lluvia de Peces (Rain of Fish) is an example of this. The legends of El Cadejo and La Llorona are also popular.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina_Díaz_Lozano

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hungarian_writers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sándor_Márai
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sándor_Petőfi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miklós_Radnóti
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attila_József

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reykjavík

In 2011, Reykjavik was designated a UNESCO City of Literature.

Iceland’s best-known classical works of literature are the Icelanders’ sagas, prose epics set in Iceland’s age of settlement. The most famous of these include Njáls saga, about an epic blood feud, and Grænlendinga saga and Eiríks saga, describing the discovery and settlement of Greenland and Vinland (modern Newfoundland). Egils saga, Laxdæla saga, Grettis saga, Gísla saga and Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu are also notable and popular Icelanders’ sagas.

A translation of the Bible was published in the 16th century. Important compositions since the 15th to the 19th century include sacred verse, most famously the Passion Hymns of Hallgrímur Pétursson, and rímur, rhyming epic poems. Originating in the 14th century, rímur were popular into the 19th century, when the development of new literary forms was provoked by the influential, National-Romantic writer Jónas Hallgrímsson. In recent times, Iceland has produced many great writers, the best-known of whom is arguably Halldór Laxness, who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1955 (the only Icelander to win a Nobel Prize thus far). Steinn Steinarr was an influential modernist poet during the early 20th century who remains popular.

Icelanders are avid consumers of literature, with the highest number of bookstores per capita in the world. For its size, Iceland imports and translates more international literature than any other nation. Iceland also has the highest per capita publication of books and magazines, and around 10% of the population will publish a book in their lifetimes.

Most books in Iceland are sold between late September to early November. This time period is known as Jolabokaflod, the Christmas Book Flood. The Flood begins with the Iceland Publisher’s Association distributing Bokatidindi, a catalog of all new publications, free to each Icelandic home.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai

https://www.rathore.com/
https://www.manishmalhotra.in/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amir_Hamzah
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyanyi_Sunyi

Film, The Year of Living Dangerously

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadi_Shirazi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_poetry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Alchemy_of_Happiness
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asrar_al-Tawhid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashf_ul_Mahjoob

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad

YouTube, Quieter Than Silence | Full Concert | Mehdi Aminian & Mohamad Zatari

Sir Wilfred Thesiger, Arabian Sands

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Herzl

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston,_Jamaica

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaican_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakuhachi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naruto

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amman

http://jordanmuseum.jo/en

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansaf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiribati

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosovo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pristina
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prizren

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goddess_on_the_Throne

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Library_of_Kosovo

Although the music in Kosovo is diverse, authentic Albanian and Serbian music still exist. Albanian music is characterised by the use of the Çifteli. Classical music is well known in Kosovo and has been taught at several music schools and universities. In 2014, Kosovo submitted their first film for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, with Three Windows and a Hanging directed by Isa Qosja.

In the past, epic poetry in Kosovo and Northern Albania was sung on a lahuta and then a more tuneful çiftelia was used which has two strings-one for the melody and one for drone. Kosovan music is influenced by Turkish music due to the almost 500-year span of Ottoman rule in Kosovo though Kosovan folklore has preserved its originality. Archaeological researches tells about how old is this tradition and how was it developed in parallel way with other traditional music in the Balkans. There were found lots of roots since 5th century BC like paintings in the stones of singers with instruments. (Is famous the portrait of “Pani” who was holding an instrument similar to a flute).

The contemporary music artists Rita Ora, Dua Lipa and Era Istrefi, are all of Albanian origin and have achieved international recognition for their music. One widely recognised musician from Prizren is guitarist Petrit Çeku, winner of several international prizes.

Serbian music from Kosovo presents a mixture of traditional music, which is part of the wider Balkan tradition, with its own distinctive sound, and various Western and Turkish influences. Serb songs from Kosovo were an inspiration for 12th song wreath by composer Stevan Mokranjac. Most of Serbian music from Kosovo was dominated by church music, with its own share of sung epic poetry. Serbian national instrument Gusle is also used in Kosovo.

Viktorija is the only artist from Kosovo, who represented Yugoslavia in the Eurovision Song Contest as part of Aska in 1982. Singer Rona Nishliu finished 5th in the 2012 Eurovision Song Contest, while Lindita represented Albania in 2017. Several Serbian singers from Kosovo, participates in the Serbian national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest. Nevena Božović represented Serbia in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest and, as member of Moje 3 in the Eurovision Song Contest.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosovo)

Albanian music is considered to be very rich in genres and their development. But before talking about genre development, a key point that has to be mentioned is without doubt the rich folklore of Kosovo most of which unfortunately has not been digitalized and saved in archives. The importance of folklore is reflected in two main keys, it is considered a treasure” of cultural heritage of our country and it helps to enlighten the Albanian history of that time, and the importance of that is of a high level especially when mentioning the circumstances of our territory in that time. Folklore has also served as inspiration and influence in many fields including music composition in the next generations One of the most notable and very first composers, Rexho Mulliqi in whose work, folklore inspiration and influence is very present.

When highlighting the music creativity and its starts in Kosovo and the relation between it and the music creativity in Albania even though they have had their development in different circumstances, it is proved that they share some characteristics in a very natural way. This fact shows that they belong to one “Cultural Tree”.

Some of few international music artists of Albanian heritage are born and raised in the city including Rita Ora, Dua Lipa and Era Istrefi.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pristina)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait_City

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheikh_Jaber_Al_Ahmad_Cultural_Centre

Kuwaiti popular culture, in the form of theatre, radio, music, and television soap opera, flourishes and is even exported to neighbouring states. Within the Gulf Arab states, the culture of Kuwait is the closest to the culture of Bahrain; this is evident in the close association between the two states in theatrical productions and soap operas.

Society
Kuwaiti society is markedly more open than other Gulf Arab societies. Kuwait stands out in the region as the most liberal in empowering women in the public sphere. Kuwaiti women outnumber men in the workforce. Kuwaiti political scientist Ghanim Alnajjar sees these qualities as a manifestation of Kuwaiti society as a whole, whereby in the Gulf region it is “the least strict about traditions”.

Television and theatre
Kuwait’s television drama industry tops other Gulf drama industries and produces a minimum of fifteen serials annually. Kuwait is the production center of the Gulf television drama and comedy scene. Most Gulf television drama and comedy productions are filmed in Kuwait. Kuwaiti soap operas are the most-watched soap operas from the Gulf region. Soap operas are most popular during the time of Ramadan, when families gather to break their fast. Although usually performed in the Kuwaiti dialect, they have been shown with success as far away as Tunisia. Kuwait is frequently dubbed the “Hollywood of the Gulf” due to the popularity of its television soap operas and theatre.

Kuwait is known for its home-grown tradition of theatre. Kuwait is the only country in the Gulf with a theatrical tradition. The theatrical movement in Kuwait constitutes a major part of the country’s cultural life. Theatrical activities in Kuwait began in the 1920s when the first spoken dramas were released. Theatre activities are still popular today. Abdulhussain Abdulredha is the most prominent actor.

Kuwait is the main centre of scenographic and theatrical training in the Gulf region. In 1973, the Higher Institute of Theatrical Arts was founded by the government to provide higher education in theatrical arts. The institute has several divisions. Many actors have graduated from the institute, such as Souad Abdullah, Mohammed Khalifa, Mansour Al-Mansour, along with a number of prominent critics such as Ismail Fahd Ismail.

Theatre in Kuwait is subsidized by the government, previously by the Ministry of Social Affairs and now by the National Council for Culture, Arts, and Letters (NCCAL). Every urban district has a public theatre. The public theatre in Salmiya is named after Abdulhussain Abdulredha.

Arts
Kuwait has the oldest modern arts movement in the Arabian Peninsula. Beginning in 1936, Kuwait was the first Gulf country to grant scholarships in the arts. The Kuwaiti artist Mojeb al-Dousari was the earliest recognized visual artist in the Gulf region. He is regarded as the founder of portrait art in the region. The Sultan Gallery was the first professional Arab art gallery in the Gulf.

Kuwait is home to more than 30 art galleries. In recent years, Kuwait’s contemporary art scene has boomed. Khalifa Al-Qattan was the first artist to hold a solo exhibition in Kuwait. He founded a new art theory in the early 1960s known as “circulism”. Other notable Kuwaiti artists include Sami Mohammad, Thuraya Al-Baqsami and Suzan Bushnaq.

The government organizes various arts festivals, including the Al Qurain Cultural Festival and Formative Arts Festival. The Kuwait International Biennial was inaugurated in 1967, more than 20 Arab and foreign countries have participated in the biennial. Prominent participants include Layla Al-Attar. In 2004, the Al Kharafi Biennial for Contemporary Arab Art was inaugurated.

Music
Kuwait is the birthplace of various popular musical genres, such as sawt. Kuwaiti music has considerably influenced the music culture in other GCC countries. Traditional Kuwaiti music is a reflection of the country’s seafaring heritage, which is known for genres such as fijiri. Kuwait pioneered contemporary Khaliji music, Kuwaitis were the first commercial recording artists in the Gulf region. The first known Kuwaiti recordings were made between 1912 and 1915.

The Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Cultural Centre contains the largest opera house in the Middle East. Kuwait is home to various music festivals, including the International Music Festival hosted by the National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters (NCCAL). Kuwait has several academic institutions specializing in university-level music education. The Higher Institute of Musical Arts was established by the government to provide bachelor’s degrees in music. In addition, the College of Basic Education offers bachelor’s degrees in music education. The Institute of Musical Studies offers degrees equivalent to secondary school.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan

Epic of Manas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Manas
https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/kyrgyz-epic-trilogy-manas-semetey-seytek-00876
http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/folklore/manas/manasintro.html

http://www.akdn.org/our-agencies/aga-khan-trust-culture/akmi/cd-dvd-series/tengir-too

http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/product_info.php?cPath=6040_5718&products_id=807647

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinghiz_Aitmatov

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vientiane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riga

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Lebanon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maronites
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maronite_Christians_in_Lebanon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Christianity_in_Lebanon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Melkite_Christians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druze_in_Lebanon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chouf_District
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baakleen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakib_Arslan
www.samimakarem.com
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Druze
http://www.religioustolerance.org/druse.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians_in_Lebanon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikha%27il_Na%27ima
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elias_Khoury
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amin_Maalouf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanan_al-Shaykh
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Schehad%C3%A9

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsh_Ehden

www.beirut.com

Lebanese Oriental Orchestra, http://www.loo.gov.lb/

Culture
The culture of Lebanon reflects the legacy of various civilizations spanning thousands of years. Originally home to the Canaanite- Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Fatimids, the Crusaders, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon’s diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country’s festivals, musical styles and literature as well as cuisine. Despite the ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity of the Lebanese, they “share an almost common culture”. Lebanese Arabic is universally spoken while food, music, and literature are deep-rooted “in wider Mediterranean and Arab Levantine norms”.

In literature, Khalil Gibran is particularly known for his book The Prophet (1923). Several contemporary Lebanese writers have also achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf, Hanan al-Shaykh, and Georges Schehadé.

In visual arts, Moustafa Farroukh was one of Lebanon’s most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career. Many more contemporary artists are currently active, such as Walid Raad, a contemporary media artist currently residing in New York.

In the field of photography, the Arab Image Foundation has a collection of over 400,000 photographs from Lebanon and the Middle East. The photographs can be viewed in a research center and various events and publications have been produced in Lebanon and worldwide to promote the collection.

The music of Lebanon is pervasive in Lebanese society. While traditional folk music remains popular in Lebanon, modern music reconciling Western and traditional Arabic styles, pop, and fusion are rapidly advancing in popularity. Lebanese artists like Fairuz, Wadih El Safi or Sabah are widely known and appreciated in Lebanon and in the Arab world. Lebanese singer Lydia Canaan is listed in the catalogue of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum’s Library and Archives in Cleveland, Ohio, USA as the first rock star of the Middle East.

The media of Lebanon is not only a regional center of production but also the most liberal and free in the Arab world. According to Press freedom’s Reporters Without Borders, “the media have more freedom in Lebanon than in any other Arab country”. Despite its small population and geographic size, Lebanon plays an influential role in the production of information in the Arab world and is “at the core of a regional media network with global implications”.

Book, Mikhail Naimy, The Book of Mirdad
Book, Mikhail Naimy, Memoirs of a Vagrant Soul or the Pitted Face

Book, Nadia Tueni: Lebanon: Poems of Love and War

Book, T J and A Feghali Gorton : Lebanon (Through Writers’ Eyes)
Book, Robert Fisk : Pity the Nation
Book, David Hirst : Beware of Small States

Painter, Ayman Baalbaki
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayman_Baalbaki

Ayman Baalbaki

Book, Ayman Baalbaki: Beirut Again and Again

Singer, Wael Kfoury

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rami_Khalif%C3%A9

BBIMF

Places to Stay / Visit

Eco Village, Chouf
Get in tune with nature and enjoy the beauty of Lebanon’s green Chouf region. Established to promote a sustainable and holistic approach to tourism and life more generally, visitors can enjoy Eco Village’s locally grown meals as well as yoga classes and full-body massages. On special occasions, psychedelic music events fit perfectly with the natural environment allowing guests to party all night – or an entire weekend.

Beit El Kroum, Zahleh
Who wouldn’t want to walk outside, breath the fresh mountain air and see this incredible view of the Bekaa Valley stretching out below you? Well, make it reality and stay at the Beit El Kroum boutique hotel. Perfect in summertime, the hotel features a patio and pool area, hosting regular barbecue events.

Grand Hotel Palmyra, Baalbek
Located across from the iconic ruins of Baalbek, Palymyra is one of Lebanon’s oldest hotels. Built in 1874, the hotel has maintained its now antique style for more than a century. In its prime, the hotel hosted royalty and the high society guests that journeyed to see the well-preserved Roman ruins.

Beit El Ward Boutique Hotel, Ehden
Step into the past and rest your head in this 100-year-old mansion. Located in the north of Lebanon, some 35 km from Tripoli, you’ll be inspired by the traditional architecture while you enjoy the local culture of the surrounding village. Take in the mountain views and spend a day exploring Ehden’s cedar forest.

Mir Amin Palace Hotel, Beiteddine
What could possibly be more luxurious than staying in a palace? Located right by the summer residence of Lebanon’s president – when there is one, that is – and just 45 km from Beirut, Mir Amin Palace offers guests a taste of true 19th century splendour. Our tip? Enjoy an afternoon meal on the terrace soaking in the breathtaking view.

Bouyouti, Beiteddine
Rest comfortably in a private guest house situated in the midst of a setting of tranquil greenery. Built on the personal property of a local family, the guest houses were individually constructed with care. Originally, the family didn’t plan on opening the property up to the public, but after successfully hosting friends and friends of friends, they realized they should share the experience.

Beit Al Batroun, Batroun
Drive up the coast from Beirut and spend a relaxing weekend at this cozy bed and breakfast. The interior of this old house has been lovingly designed to reflect traditional Lebanese rural homes, with rooms and sitting spaces situated around a spacious central liwan. Soak up the sea breeze and enjoy the view as you relax like a local along the coast.

Restaurants

https://www.facebook.com/UMMI-109378906391080/?fref=mentionshttp://

www.babelrestaurant.com/http://

www.emsherif.com

Karam Restaurant, The Atrium Building Bazerkan Street, Downtown,, Al Barsha, Beirut, +9611991222

Restaurant, Tawlet Restaurant, Naher Street 12 (Jisr el-Hadeed), Chalhoub Building 22, Beirut, +9611448129
Stop eating. Keep it that way for the next 24hrs. Are you on the verge of collapsing? Now go to Tawlet. Originally a part of Souk el Tayeb, an organisation that promotes Lebanon’s independent farmers and producers, Tawlet has evolved into a restaurant in in itself. The concept is in the same spirit as the Souk. There is no menu: just a daily smorgasbord of traditional Lebanese dishes prepared by farmers from all over the country, who rotate throughout the week. There’s only one option: an all-you-can-eat buffet, which comes in at LL40,000 per diner. Community is the watchword. There’s no intimate dining experience here: you help yourself to the food then plonk yourself down at one of the large communal tables. The sheer variety of lovingly prepared dishes is enough to fire up the most sated stomach, but our advice is to take it easy, and attack the buffet a few small portions at a time. The cooks are on hand to give some context: the genesis of the recipe where the ingredients are sourced, which markets to head to if you want more. The mission is as much pedagogical as gastronomic, and it’s no surprise that Tawlet offers cooking classes on the side.

Restaurant, Al Falamanki, Address: Damascus Road, Achrafieh, Beirut, Cross street: by Sodeco
http://www.alfalamanki.com/
Al Falamanki is Lebanese dining. It serves every type of mezze you could ever think of and more, as well as grills and oven-baked dishes. But it’s not just a spot for food: there are always plenty of people enjoying nargileh with friends and a few coffees or drinks. The venue is capacious, but the best spot is the terrace. The beautiful garden surroundings are a blessing in a city where you can walk for miles without seeing a single tree. On a warm summer evening, dinner among the trees is a blissfully peaceful experience, even when the restaurant is packed — which it generally is. What’s more, it’s open 24hrs a day; so next time you wake up at 2am craving some kafta with tahina, this should be your first port of call.

Restaurant, Tabliyit Massaad, Gouraud Street, Gemmayzeh, Beirut, Cross street: by Sainte Famille Street
On first impressions Tabliyit Massaad (also known as Massaad Express) does have the mien of a fast food restaurant, with its bright lights and gaudily hued walls – but you’d be wrong to dismiss it as such. This popular chain is cheerful and certainly cheap, but the epic sandwiches it serves up on its trademark wooden boards (the Tabliye that give it its name) are a cut above your average street fare. The recipes come with unexpected grace notes (toasted sesame seeds, anyone?) and the portions are filling, whether you opt for a simple sandwich or the entire platter (which includes fries and coleslaw). The recently opened Gemmayzeh branch handily saves Beirutis on a post-booze sustenance mission the trouble of venturing out to Zahle.

Restaurant, Al Mayass, Address: Trabaud Street, Achrafieh, Beirut
Located in quiet Achrafieh, Al Mayass serves a delightful selection of Lebanese, Armenian and Syrian dishes in a homely environment. The lunch menu is particularly good: for just $25 (LL38,000) you can choose three dishes from an impressive selection of salads and meat dishes. The dinner menu – distinctly pricier – proffers a varied selection of mezze both hot and cold, classic (a dizzying variety of hummus-based sides) and unfamiliar (grape leaves wrapped with rice and vegetables). Since our visit, nary a day has passed when we haven’t daydreamed of another helping of basterma, their delectable Armenian pastrami. A gem.

Restaurant, Frida, Massabni Building, Al Hayek Sector, Shukri Al Asli Street, Achrafieh, Beirut
Frida is a Lebanese restaurant with a twist of Mexican, inspired (somewhat improbably) by the iconic Mexican artist Frida Kahlo. The old Achrafieh house that it inhabits has been transformed into quirky bohemian digs, replete with Kahlo-inspired paintings of dresses on the walls and the strains of the ‘Frida’ biopic’s soundtrack issuing softly from the sound system. The theme extends to the menu, which boasts a superb selection of Lebanese mezze, many of them with a Mexican twist – hence intriguing items such as the quesadillas in markouk and makanek with jalapeños. If you’re not yet a convert to arak, the house cocktails may just turn you.

Restaurant, Seza, Patriarch Arida Street, Mar Mikhael, Beirut
The plethora of home-cooked dishes at one of Beirut’s best Armenian restaurants, tucked away on one of Mar Mikhael’s back streets, make for a memorable meal indeed. This is the real deal: as Grandma Seza diligently prepares generations-old recipes in the kitchen, the rest of the family tend to the dining area, which is decked out like the front room of a bustling Armenian family home. For the warmer months there’s also a luscious covered terrace, decorated with lights. Just like Lebanese mezze, Armenian food is great for sharing: the kavurma (a sort of braised lamb casserole) and frike stew are two of our favourites. There are cheaper Armenian restaurants in the city – many of them just down the road in Bourj Hammoud – but most lack the cheery domestic charm of Seza.

Restaurant Chain, Kabab-ji Chain, Beirut and Across Lebanon
https://www.kababji.com/

Restaurant, Al Balad Restaurant, Beirut
+9611985375
Of all dishes, the most popular must be the kebbeh, a sort of large meatball covered with rice or bulgur, and fried.

Em Sherif Restaurant, Monot Street, Beirut, +9611206206
http://www.emsherif.com/

The Gathering, Pasteur Street, Gemmayze, Beirut, +9611566196

Momo at the Souks, Souk El Bazerkan, Beirut, +9611999767

St Elmo’s Brasserie, R2, Zaitunay Bay, Beirut Marina, Beirut, +9611367356

www.lizabeirut.com

Cafe Younes, Abdel Aziz Street, Hamra, Beirut, Lebanon. +9611742654
If you’re into uncompromisingly good coffee, look no further than Café Younes, a long standing institution first established in 1935 on a street in Downtown Beirut. For over 80 years, this acclaimed speciality coffee roaster has been serving freshly roasted and ground coffee on the spot to generations of loyal customers. Beyond coffee, they also serve a number of signature drinks, baked goods and fresh sandwiches in a contemporary and homely setting shared by each of the venues they now operate within the city. Regularly organised poetry readings and live music nights are especially worth looking forward to.

Dar Bistro & Books
It is the unique atmosphere that truly sets Dar Bistro & Books apart. Nestled away in a little alley, this well lit house combines a cafe (serving Greek and Mediterranean food, wholesome sandwiches, and a good deal of vegetarian options) with a boutique bookshop selling carefully selected titles. Contributing to its unique easy going atmosphere is its beautiful garden terrace, surrounded by trees, vines and flowering jasmine. An oasis of this kind, perfect for some time to unwind with a book or to grab some brunch with friends, is to be found nowhere else in busy Hamra.
Address: Alley 83, Roma Street, Wardieh Hamra, Beirut, Lebanon. +961 1 373 348

Yerba Maté
https://www.thematefactory.com/web/?#slider
Wissam Hamdan, who grew up drinking mate in his village, decided to introduce the drink to a wider audience. In 2005, he opened The Mate Factory, a restaurant in the picturesque mountain town of Aley, near Beirut.
Read more at https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/food/features/2014/03/17/south-american-mate-tea-a-longtime-lebanese-hit/#igOz0YasiwSTsDlV.99

How did yerba mate arrive in the Middle East?
I guess to answer this question, we have to take a step back and talk a little bit about History. The first wave of Arabs came to South America around the 1860s. Around this time, Pedro II Emperor of Brazil travelled to modern day Lebanon and was amazed with the culture he found there. Upon his return to South America, he arranged for several Arab immigrants to settle in regions bordering Argentina and Paraguay (modern day Parana).

Around the same time, many other Syrian and Lebanese immigrants were making their way into Argentina in order to escape persecution by the Ottoman Turks and the Italo-Turkish War.  When they were first processed in the ports of Argentina, they were classified as Turks because what is modern day Lebanon and Syria was a territory of the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Even today, we still call all Arabs “Turks” in most regions of Brazil.

Around the 1940s the number of Arab immigrants, mainly from Syria and Lebanon, increased again because young people were called to fight in World War II (Syria and Lebanon were French colonies); this number increased further during the Lebanese civil war, which began in 1958.

Finally in the mid 1970s, the number of immigrants decreased dramatically, due to the poor instable economic situation of most South American countries and the oil boom in Arab countries. It was also around this time that many Lebanese and Syrian immigrants returned to their homeland, taking with them the acquired habit o drinking yerba mate.

Today, Syria remains the biggest importer of yerba mate in the world, importing 15,000 tons a year. It is mostly the Druze community in Syria and Lebanon who maintain the culture and practice of mate.
(http://www.yerbamateblog.com/yerba-mate-traditions-lebanon-syria/)

[Some other estaurants, Leila, T-marbuta, Abdel Wahab ….]

Main Demo 3

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricardo_Karam

Barber, Beirut
www.rinosbarbershop.com
01-250-105 / 76-61-63-5

Film, Morine
www.morinemovie.com

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesotho

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monrovia

The religious practices, social customs and cultural standards of the Americo-Liberians had their roots in the antebellum American South. The settlers wore top hat and tails and modeled their homes on those of Southern slaveowners. Most Americo-Liberian men were members of the Masonic Order of Liberia, which became heavily involved in the nation’s politics.

Liberia has a long, rich history in textile arts and quilting, as the settlers brought with them their sewing and quilting skills. Liberia hosted National Fairs in 1857 and 1858 in which prizes were awarded for various needle arts. One of the most well-known Liberian quilters was Martha Ann Ricks, who presented a quilt featuring the famed Liberian coffee tree to Queen Victoria in 1892. When President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf moved into the Executive Mansion, she reportedly had a Liberian-made quilt installed in her presidential office.

A rich literary tradition has existed in Liberia for over a century. Edward Wilmot Blyden, Bai T. Moore, Roland T. Dempster and Wilton G. S. Sankawulo are among Liberia’s more prominent authors. Moore’s novella Murder in the Cassava Patch is considered Liberia’s most celebrated novel.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bai_T._Moore
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Wilmot_Blyden
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilton_G._S._Sankawulo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libya
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripoli

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Libya
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Libya

Many Arabic speaking Libyans consider themselves as part of a wider Arab community. This was strengthened by the spread of Pan-Arabism in the mid-20th century, and their reach to power in Libya where they instituted Arabic as the only official language of the state. Under their dictatorship the teaching and even use of indigenous Tamazight language was strictly forbidden. In addition to banning foreign languages previously taught in academic institutions, leaving entire generations of Libyans with limitations in their comprehension of the English language. Both the spoken Arabic dialects and Tamazight, still retain words from Italian, that were acquired before and during the Libia Italiana period.

Libyans have a heritage in the traditions of the previously nomadic Bedouin Arabic speakers and sedentary Amazigh tribes. Most Libyans associate themselves with a particular family name originating from tribal or conquest based, typically from Ottoman forefathers, heritage.

Reflecting the “nature of giving” (Arabic: الاحسان‎ Ihsan, Tamazight: ⴰⵏⴰⴽⴽⴰⴼ Anakkaf ), amongst the Libyan people as well as the sense of hospitality, recently the state of Libya made it to the top 20 on the world giving index in 2013. According to CAF, in a typical month, almost three quarters (72%) of all Libyans helped somebody they did not know – the third highest level across all 135 countries surveyed.

There are few theaters or art galleries due to the decades of cultural repression under the Qaddafi regime and lack of infrastructure development under the regime of dictatorship. For many years there have been no public theaters, and only very few cinemas showing foreign films. The tradition of folk culture is still alive and well, with troupes performing music and dance at frequent festivals, both in Libya and abroad.

A large number of Libyan television stations are devoted to political review, Islamic topics and cultural phenomena. A number of TV stations air various styles of traditional Libyan music. Tuareg music and dance are popular in Ghadames and the south. Libyan television broadcasts air programs mostly in Arabic though usually have time slots for English and French programs. A 1996 analysis by the Committee to Protect Journalists found Libya’s media was the most tightly controlled in the Arab world during the country’s dictatorship. As of 2012 hundreds of TV stations have begun to air due to the collapse of censorship from the old regime and the initiation of “free media”.

Many Libyans frequent the country’s beach and they also visit Libya’s archaeological sites—especially Leptis Magna, which is widely considered to be one of the best preserved Roman archaeological sites in the world. The most common form of public transport between cities is the bus, though many people travel by automobile. There are no railway services in Libya, but these are planned for construction in the near future (see rail transport in Libya).

Libya’s capital, Tripoli, has many museums and archives. These include the Government Library, the Ethnographic Museum, the Archaeological Museum, the National Archives, the Epigraphy Museum and the Islamic Museum. The Red Castle Museum located in the capital near the coast and right in the city center, built in consultation with UNESCO, may be the country’s most famous.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libya)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liechtenstein
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaduz

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius

There is a great deal of Lithuanian literature written in Latin, the main scholarly language of the Middle Ages. The edicts of the Lithuanian King Mindaugas is the prime example of the literature of this kind. The Letters of Gediminas are another crucial heritage of the Lithuanian Latin writings.

Lithuanian literary works in the Lithuanian language started being first published in the 16th century. In 1547 Martynas Mažvydas compiled and published the first printed Lithuanian book The Simple Words of Catechism, which marks the beginning of printed Lithuanian literature. He was followed by Mikalojus Daukša with Katechizmas. In the 16th and 17th centuries, as in the whole Christian Europe, Lithuanian literature was primarily religious.

The evolution of the old (14th–18th century) Lithuanian literature ends with Kristijonas Donelaitis, one of the most prominent authors of the Age of Enlightenment. Donelaitis’ poem The Seasons is a landmark of the Lithuanian fiction literature, written in hexameter.[369]

With a mix of Classicism, Sentimentalism and Romanticism, the Lithuanian literature of the first half of the 19th century is represented by Maironis, Antanas Baranauskas, Simonas Daukantas and Simonas Stanevičius. During the Tsarist annexation of Lithuania in the 19th century, the Lithuanian press ban was implemented, which led to the formation of the Knygnešiai (Book smugglers) movement. This movement is thought to be the very reason the Lithuanian language and literature survived until today.

20th-century Lithuanian literature is represented by Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas, Antanas Vienuolis, Bernardas Brazdžionis, Antanas Škėma, Balys Sruoga, Vytautas Mačernis and Justinas Marcinkevičius.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg_City

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Macedonia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skopje

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antananarivo

Each of the many ethnic subgroups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana (solidarity), vintana (destiny), tody (karma), and hasina, a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family. Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship ties; a widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves.

Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status, economic opportunity and roles within the community. Malagasy people traditionally consult Mpanandro (“Makers of the Days”) to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or famadihana, according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. Similarly, the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the ombiasy (from olona-be-hasina, “man of much virtue”) of the southeastern Antemoro ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to early Arab settlers.

The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions. The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar, the valiha, is a bamboo tube zither carried to Madagascar by early settlers from southern Borneo, and is very similar in form to those found in Indonesia and the Philippines today. Traditional houses in Madagascar are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar. Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living. The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island’s earliest settlers, and Madagascar’s national dress, the woven lamba, has evolved into a varied and refined art.

The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in Malagasy cuisine, in which rice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes. African influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner’s wealth, traditions originating on the African mainland. Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers.

A wide variety of oral and written literature has developed in Madagascar. One of the island’s foremost artistic traditions is its oratory, as expressed in the forms of hainteny (poetry), kabary (public discourse) and ohabolana (proverbs). An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the Ibonia, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities. This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists as Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, who is considered Africa’s first modern poet, and Elie Rajaonarison, an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry. Madagascar has also developed a rich musical heritage, embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal salegy or highland hiragasy that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves. Additionally, Madagascar also has a growing culture of classical music fostered through youth academies, organizations and orchestras that promote youth involvement in classical music.

The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island. In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving of raffia and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats. Wood carving is a highly developed art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements. Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods, aloalo funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of which are produced for the tourist market. The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the Zafimaniry people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO’s list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008.

Among the Antaimoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco-tourists. Embroidery and drawn thread work are done by hand to produce clothing, as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets. A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local artists, and annual art events, such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malawi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilongwe

The name “Malawi” comes from the Maravi, a Bantu people who emigrated from the southern Congo around 1400 AD. Upon reaching northern Lake Malawi, the group divided, with one group moving south down the west bank of the lake to become the group known as the Chewa, while the other group, the ancestors of today’s Nyanja, moved along the east side of the lake to the southern section of Malawi. Ethnic conflict and continuing migration prevented the formation of a society that was uniquely and cohesively Malawian until the dawn of the 20th century. Over the past century, ethnic distinctions have diminished to the point where there is no significant inter-ethnic friction, although regional divisions still occur. The concept of a Malawian nationality has begun to form around a predominantly rural people who are generally conservative and traditionally nonviolent.

From 1964–2010, and again since 2012, the Flag of Malawi is made up of three equal horizontal stripes of black, red and green with a red rising sun superimposed in the center of the black stripe. The black stripe represented the African people, the red represented the blood of martyrs for African freedom, green represented Malawi’s ever-green nature and the rising sun represented the dawn of freedom and hope for Africa.[99] In 2010, the flag was changed, removing the red rising sun and adding a full white sun in the center as a symbol of Malawi’s economic progress. The change was reverted in 2012.

Its dances are a strong part of Malawi’s culture, and the National Dance Troupe (formerly the Kwacha Cultural Troupe) was formed in November 1987 by the government. Traditional music and dances can be seen at initiation rites, rituals, marriage ceremonies and celebrations. Soccer is the most common sport in Malawi, introduced there during British colonial rule. Basketball is also growing in popularity.

The indigenous ethnic groups of Malawi have a rich tradition of basketry and mask carving, and some of these goods are used in traditional ceremonies still performed by native peoples. Wood carving and oil painting are also popular in more urban centres, with many of the items produced being sold to tourists. There are several internationally recognised literary figures from Malawi, including poet Jack Mapanje, history and fiction writer Paul Zeleza and authors Legson Kayira, Felix Mnthali, Frank Chipasula and David Rubadiri.

Malawian cuisine is diverse, with tea and fish being popular features of the country’s cuisine. Sugar, coffee, corn, potatoes, sorghum, cattle and goats are also important components of the cuisine and economy. Lake Malawi is a source of fish including chambo (similar to bream) usipa (similar to sardine), and mpasa (similar to salmon and kampango). Nsima is a food staple made from ground corn and typically served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. It is commonly eaten for lunch and dinner.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malawi)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Malaysia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Malaysia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malé

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamako

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Mali

Though Mali’s literature is less famous than its music, Mali has always been one of Africa’s liveliest intellectual centers. Mali’s literary tradition is passed mainly by word of mouth, with jalis reciting or singing histories and stories known by heart. Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Mali’s best-known historian, spent much of his life writing these oral traditions down for the world to remember.

The best-known novel by a Malian writer is Yambo Ouologuem’s Le devoir de violence, which won the 1968 Prix Renaudot but whose legacy was marred by accusations of plagiarism. Other well-known Malian writers include Baba Traoré, Modibo Sounkalo Keita, Massa Makan Diabaté, Moussa Konaté, and Fily Dabo Sissoko.

Malian musical traditions are derived from the griots, who are known as “Keepers of Memories”. Malian music is diverse and has several different genres. Some famous Malian influences in music are kora virtuoso musician Toumani Diabaté, the ngoni with Bassekou Kouyate the virtuoso of the electric jeli ngoni, the late roots and blues guitarist Ali Farka Touré, the Tuareg band Tinariwen, and several Afro-pop artists such as Salif Keita, the duo Amadou et Mariam, Oumou Sangare, Rokia Traore, and Habib Koité. Dance also plays a large role in Malian culture. Dance parties are common events among friends, and traditional mask dances are performed at ceremonial events.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali)

Though Mali’s literature is less famous than its music, Mali has always been one of Africa’s liveliest intellectual centers. Mali’s literary tradition is largely oral, with jalis reciting or singing histories and stories from memory. Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Mali’s best-known historian, spent much of his life recording the oral traditions of his own Fula teachers, as well as those of Bambara and other Mande neighbors.

The best-known novel by a Malian writer is Yambo Ouologuem’s Le devoir de violence, which won the 1968 Prix Renaudot but whose legacy was marred by accusations of plagiarism. It is a dark history of a loosely disguised Bambara Empire, focused on slavery, injustice and suffering.

Massa Makan Diabaté, a descendant of griots, is known in the Francophone world for his work on The Epic of Sundiata as well as his “Kouta trilogy,” a series of realist novels loosely based on contemporary life in his hometown of Kita. Other well-known Malian writers include Baba Traoré, Modibo Sounkalo Keita, Maryse Condé (a native of the French Antilles, has made a career writing about the Bamabara people from whom she descends), Moussa Konaté, and Fily Dabo Sissoko. Ousmane Sembène, a Wolof Senegalese novelist, set half of his novel God’s Bits of Wood in Bamako.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Mali)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valletta
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkirkara

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maltese_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Islands
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majuro

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallese_culture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritania
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nouakchott

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Mauritania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritius
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Louis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Mauritius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico_City

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Mexico

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_art

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_Mexico

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Rulfo

Mexican literature has its antecedents in the literatures of the indigenous settlements of Mesoamerica. The most well known prehispanic poet is Nezahualcoyotl. Modern Mexican literature was influenced by the concepts of the Spanish colonialization of Mesoamerica. Outstanding colonial writers and poets include Juan Ruiz de Alarcón and Juana Inés de la Cruz.

Other writers include Alfonso Reyes, José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Carlos Fuentes, Octavio Paz (Nobel Laureate), Renato Leduc, Carlos Monsiváis, Elena Poniatowska, Mariano Azuela (“Los de abajo”) and Juan Rulfo (“Pedro Páramo”). Bruno Traven wrote “Canasta de cuentos mexicanos” (Mexican tales basket), “El tesoro de la Sierra Madre” (Treasure of the Sierra Madre).
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronesia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronesian_mythology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia

Micronesian music is influential to those living in the Micronesian islands. Some of the music is based around mythology and ancient Micronesian rituals. It covers a range of styles from traditional songs, handed down through generations, to contemporary music.

Traditional beliefs suggest that the music can be presented to people in dreams and trances, rather than being written by composers themselves. Micronesian folk music is, like Polynesian music, primarily vocal-based.

In the Marshall Islands, the roro is a kind of traditional chant, usually about ancient legends and performed to give guidance during navigation and strength for mothers in labour. Modern bands have blended the unique songs of each island in the country with modern music. Though drums are not generally common in Micronesian music, one-sided hourglass-shaped drums are a major part of Marshallese music. There is a traditional Marshallese dance called beet, which is influenced by Spanish folk dances. In it, men and women side-step in parallel lines. There is a kind of stick dance performed by the Jobwa, nowadays only for very special occasions.

Popular music, both from Micronesia and from other areas of the world, is played on radio stations in Micronesia.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronesia)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chișinău

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Moldova
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Moldova

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_Creangă

Moldova’s cultural tradition has been influenced primarily by the Romanian origins of its majority population, the roots of which go back to the 2nd Century AD, the period of Roman colonisation in Dacia. Located geographically at the crossroads of Latin, Slavic and other cultures, Moldova has enriched its own culture adopting and maintaining some of the traditions of its neighbours and of other influence sources. The largest ethnic group, which had come to identify itself widely as “Moldovan” by the 14th century, is a speaker of Romanian and played a significant role in the shaping of classical Romanian culture, which still has a major role. The culture has been also influenced by the Byzantine culture, the neighbouring Magyar and Slavic population, and later by the Ottoman Turks. A strong Western European influence in Moldovan literature and arts was prevalent in the 19th Century. During the periods 1812-1917 and 1944-89, the eastern Moldovans were influenced by Russian and Soviet administrative control as well and by ethnic Russian immigration.

The country’s cultural heritage was marked by numerous churches and monasteries built by the Moldavian ruler Stephen the Great in the 15th century, by the works of the later renaissance Metropolitans Varlaam and Dosoftei, and those of scholars such as Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Nicolae Milescu, Dimitrie Cantemir[d] and Ion Neculce. In the 19th century, Moldavians from the territories of the medieval Principality of Moldavia, divided into Bessarabia, Bukovina, and Western Moldavia (after 1859, Romania), made a significant contribution to the formation of the modern Romanian culture. Among these were many Bessarabians, such as Alexandru Donici, Alexandru Hâjdeu, Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, Constantin Stamati, Constantin Stamati-Ciurea, Costache Negruzzi, Alecu Russo, Constantin Stere.

Mihai Eminescu, a late Romantic poet, and Ion Creangă, a writer, are the most influential Romanian language artists, considered national writers both in Romania and Moldova.

The country has also important minority ethnic communities. Gagauz, 4.4% of the population, are Christian Turkic people. Greeks, Armenians, Poles, Ukrainians, although not numerous, were present since as early as the 17th century, and had left cultural marks. The 19th century saw the arrival of many more Ukrainians from Podolia and Galicia, as well as new communities, such as Lipovans, Bulgarians and Bessarabian Germans.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monaco

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulaanbaatar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandantegchinlen_Monastery
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choijin_Lama_Temple
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Mongolia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanabazar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarbayasgalant_Monastery
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tövkhön_Monastery

Turtle Rock Monastery

Book, Benedict Allen, Edge of Blue Heaven : A Journey Through Mongolia
Book, Louisa Waugh, Hearing Birds Fly : A Year In A Mongolian Village
Book, Hamid Sardar, Dark Heavens : Shamans and Hunters of Mongolia
Book, Palani Mohan, Hunting with Eagles : In the Realm of the Mongolian Kazakhs
Book, David Treanor, Mission Mongolia : Two Men, One Van, No Turning Back

Film, “Cave of the Yellow Dog”
Film, “Mongol”

(Onon)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegro
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podgorica

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Montenegro

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegrin_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petar_II_Petrović-Njegoš

The culture of Montenegro has been shaped by a variety of influences throughout history. The influence of Orthodox, Ottoman (Turk), Slavic, Central European, and seafaring Adriatic cultures (notably parts of Italy, like the Republic of Venice) have been the most important in recent centuries.

Montenegro has many significant cultural and historical sites, including heritage sites from the pre-Romanesque, Gothic and Baroque periods. The Montenegrin coastal region is especially well known for its religious monuments, including the Cathedral of Saint Tryphon in Kotor (Cattaro under the Venetians), the basilica of St. Luke (over 800 years), Our Lady of the Rocks (Škrpjela), the Savina Monastery and others. Montenegro’s medieval monasteries contain thousands of square metres of frescos on their walls.

A dimension of Montenegrin culture is the ethical ideal of Čojstvo i Junaštvo, “Humaneness and Gallantry”. The traditional folk dance of the Montenegrins is the Oro, the “eagle dance” that involves dancing in circles with couples alternating in the centre, and is finished by forming a human pyramid by dancers standing on each other’s shoulders.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegro)

Book, Njegoš, The Mountain Wreath

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabat
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez,_Morocco

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroccan_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Morocco

http://www.fez-riads.com/fes-festival-of-world-sacred-music/

Literature
Moroccan literature is written in Arabic, Berber and French. Under the Almohad dynasty Morocco experienced a period of prosperity and brilliance of learning. The Almohad built the Koutoubia Mosque in Marrakesh, which accommodated no fewer than 25,000 people, but was also famed for its books, manuscripts, libraries and book shops, which gave it its name; the first book bazaar in history. The Almohad Caliph Abu Yakub had a great love for collecting books. He founded a great library, which was eventually carried to the Casbah and turned into a public library.

Modern Moroccan literature began in the 1930s. Two main factors gave Morocco a pulse toward witnessing the birth of a modern literature. Morocco, as a French and Spanish protectorate left Moroccan intellectuals the opportunity to exchange and to produce literary works freely enjoying the contact of other Arabic literature and Europe. Three generations of writers especially shaped 20th century Moroccan literature. The first was the generation that lived and wrote during the Protectorate (1912–56), its most important representative being Mohammed Ben Brahim (1897–1955).

The second generation was the one that played an important role in the transition to independence with writers like Abdelkrim Ghallab (1919–2006), Allal al-Fassi (1910–1974) and Mohammed al-Mokhtar Soussi (1900–1963). The third generation is that of writers of the sixties. Moroccan literature then flourished with writers such as Mohamed Choukri, Driss Chraïbi, Mohamed Zafzaf and Driss El Khouri. Those writers were an important influence the many Moroccan novelists, poets and playwrights that were still to come.

During the 1950s and 1960s, Morocco was a refuge and artistic centre and attracted writers as Paul Bowles, Tennessee Williams and William S. Burroughs. Moroccan literature flourished with novelists such as Mohamed Zafzaf and Mohamed Choukri, who wrote in Arabic, and Driss Chraïbi and Tahar Ben Jelloun who wrote in French. Other important Moroccan authors include, Abdellatif Laabi, Abdelkrim Ghallab, Fouad Laroui, Mohammed Berrada and Leila Abouzeid. Orature (oral literature) is an integral part of Moroccan culture, be it in Moroccan Arabic or Berber.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco)

Music
Moroccan music is of Arabic, Berber and sub-Saharan origins. Rock-influenced chaabi bands are widespread, as is trance music with historical origins in Islamic music.

Morocco is home to Andalusian classical music that is found throughout North Africa. It probably evolved under the Moors in Cordoba, and the Persian-born musician Ziryab is usually credited with its invention. A genre known as Contemporary Andalusian Music and art is the brainchild of Morisco visual artist/composer/oudist Tarik Banzi, founder of the Al-Andalus Ensemble.

Chaabi (“popular”) is a music consisting of numerous varieties which are descended from the multifarious forms of Moroccan folk music. Chaabi was originally performed in markets, but is now found at any celebration or meeting.

Aita is a Bedouin musical style sung in the countryside.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco)

http://ensembleibnarabi.com/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maputo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Mozambique
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Mozambique

Mozambique was ruled by Portugal, and they share a main language (Portuguese) and main religion (Roman Catholicism). But since most of the people of Mozambique are Bantus, most of the culture is native; for Bantus living in urban areas, there is some Portuguese influence. Mozambican culture also influences the Portuguese culture. Mozambican food, music, movies (by RTP África), and traditions are now part of everyday lifestyles of Portugal.

The Makonde are renowned for their wood carving and elaborate masks, that are commonly used in traditional dances. There are two different kinds of wood carvings: shetani, (evil spirits), which are mostly carved in heavy ebony, tall, and elegantly curved with symbols and nonrepresentational faces; and ujamaa, which are totem-type carvings which illustrate lifelike faces of people and various figures. These sculptures are usually referred to as “family trees”, because they tell stories of many generations.

During the last years of the colonial period, Mozambican art reflected the oppression by the colonial power, and became symbol of the resistance. After independence in 1975, the modern art came into a new phase. The two best known and most influential contemporary Mozambican artists are the painter Malangatana Ngwenya and the sculptor Alberto Chissano. A lot of the post-independence art during the 1980s and 1990s reflect the political struggle, civil war, suffering, starvation, and struggle.

Dances are usually intricate, highly developed traditions throughout Mozambique. There are many different kinds of dances from tribe to tribe which are usually ritualistic in nature. The Chopi, for instance, act out battles dressed in animal skins. The men of Makua dress in colourful outfits and masks while dancing on stilts around the village for hours. Groups of women in the northern part of the country perform a traditional dance called tufo, to celebrate Islamic holidays.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naypyidaw
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandalay

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuthodaw_Pagoda

A diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, the majority culture is primarily Buddhist and Bamar. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries. This is manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the local form of Theravada Buddhism. Considered the national epic of Myanmar, the Yama Zatdaw, an adaptation of India’s Ramayana, has been influenced greatly by Thai, Mon, and Indian versions of the play. Buddhism is practised along with nat worship, which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.

In a traditional village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation ceremony called shinbyu is the most important coming of age events for a boy, during which he enters the monastery for a short time. All male children in Buddhist families are encouraged to be a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies (နားသ) at the same time. Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival. Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace.

An Arakan (Rakhine) girl pours water at revellers during the Burmese New Year Thingyan Water Festival in Yangon.
British colonial rule introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar. Myanmar’s education system is modelled after that of the United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as Yangon. Many ethnic minorities, particularly the Karen in the southeast and the Kachin and Chin who populate the north and northeast, practice Christianity. According to The World Factbook, the Burman population is 68% and the ethnic groups constitute 32%. However, the exiled leaders and organisations claims that ethnic population is 40%, which is implicitly contrasted with CIA report (official US report).
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar)

Rudyard Kipling wrote a poem called “Mandalay” (1890), which is the origin of the phrase “on the road to Mandalay”. In 1907, the poem was set to music by Oley Speaks as “On the Road to Mandalay”. Speaks’ version was widely recorded. Among the best known renditions is the one by Frank Sinatra on Come Fly With Me.

George Orwell was stationed at Mandalay for a time while working for the Indian Imperial Police in Burma, and his first novel, Burmese Days (1934), was based on his experiences in Burma. He also wrote a number of short non-fiction essays and short stories about Burma, such as “A Hanging” (1931) and “Shooting an Elephant” (1936). John Masters wrote a book about his wartime experiences in Burma called The Road Past Mandalay (1961).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandalay_(poem)

Book, George Orwell, Burmese Days
Book, John Masters, The Road Past Mandalay

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windhoek

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauru
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaren_District
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meneng_District

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathmandu

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Nepal

Coming soon …

Coming soon …

Coming soon …

Coming soon …

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuja
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Nigeria
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Nigeria

Nigerian citizens have authored many influential works of post-colonial literature in the English language. Nigeria’s best-known writers are Wole Soyinka, the first African Nobel Laureate in Literature, and Chinua Achebe, best known for the novel Things Fall Apart (1958) and his controversial critique of Joseph Conrad.

Other Nigerian writers and poets who are well known internationally include John Pepper Clark, Ben Okri, Cyprian Ekwensi, Buchi Emecheta, Helon Habila, T. M. Aluko, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Daniel O. Fagunwa, Femi Osofisan and Ken Saro Wiwa, who was executed in 1995 by the military regime. Nigeria has the second largest newspaper market in Africa (after Egypt) with an estimated circulation of several million copies daily in 2003.

Critically acclaimed writers of a younger generation include Chris Abani, Sefi Atta, Helon Habila, Helen Oyeyemi, Nnedi Okorafor, Kachi A. Ozumba, Sarah Ladipo Manyika, and Chika Unigwe.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie

Coming soon …

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_writers

The history of Norwegian literature starts with the pagan Eddaic poems and skaldic verse of the 9th and 10th centuries, with poets such as Bragi Boddason and Eyvindr skáldaspillir. The arrival of Christianity around the year 1000 brought Norway into contact with European mediaeval learning, hagiography and history writing. Merged with native oral tradition and Icelandic influence, this influenced the literature written in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Major works of that period include Historia Norwegiæ, Þiðrekssaga and Konungs skuggsjá.

Little Norwegian literature came out of the period of the Scandinavian Union and the subsequent Dano-Norwegian union (1387–1814), with some notable exceptions such as Petter Dass and Ludvig Holberg. In his play Peer Gynt, Ibsen characterised this period as “Twice two hundred years of darkness/brooded o’er the race of monkeys.” The first line of this couplet is frequently quoted. During the union with Denmark, the government imposed using only written Danish, which decreased the writing of Norwegian literature.

Two major events precipitated a major resurgence in Norwegian literature: in 1811 a Norwegian university was established in Christiania. Secondly, seized by the spirit of revolution following the American and French revolutions, the Norwegians created their first Constitution in 1814. Strong authors were inspired who became recognised first in Scandinavia, and then worldwide; among them were Henrik Wergeland, Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, Jørgen Moe and Camilla Collett.

By the late 19th century, in the Golden Age of Norwegian literature, the so-called “Great Four” emerged: Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Alexander Kielland, and Jonas Lie. Bjørnson’s “peasant novels”, such as Ein glad gut (A Happy Boy) and Synnøve Solbakken, are typical of the Norwegian romantic nationalism of their day. Kielland’s novels and short stories are mostly naturalistic. Although an important contributor to early romantic nationalism, (especially Peer Gynt), Henrik Ibsen is better known for his pioneering realistic dramas such as The Wild Duck and A Doll’s House. They caused an uproar because of his candid portrayals of the middle classes, complete with infidelity, unhappy marriages, and corrupt businessmen.

In the 20th century, three Norwegian novelists were awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1903, Knut Hamsun for the book Markens grøde (“Growth of the Soil”) in 1920, and Sigrid Undset (known for Kristinlavransdatter) in 1928. Writers such as the following also made important contributions: Dag Solstad, Jon Fosse, Cora Sandel, Olav Duun, Olav H. Hauge, Gunvor Hofmo, Stein Mehren, Kjell Askildsen, Hans Herbjørnsrud, Aksel Sandemose, Bergljot Hobæk Haff, Jostein Gaarder, Erik Fosnes Hansen, Jens Bjørneboe, Kjartan Fløgstad, Lars Saabye Christensen, Johan Borgen, Herbjørg Wassmo, Jan Erik Vold, Rolf Jacobsen, Olaf Bull, Jan Kjærstad, Georg Johannesen, Tarjei Vesaas, Sigurd Hoel, Arnulf Øverland, Karl Ove Knausgård and Johan Falkberget.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman

Bait Al Zubair Museum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamabad
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karachi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Pakistan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urdu_poetry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Pakistan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qawwali

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalwar_kameez

Pakistan has literature in Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Pashto, Baluchi, Persian, English, and many other languages. The Pakistan Academy of Letters is a large literary community that promotes literature and poetry in Pakistan and abroad. The National Library publishes and promotes literature in the country. Before the 19th century, Pakistani literature consisted mainly of lyric and religious poetry and mystical and folkloric works. During the colonial period, native literary figures were influenced by western literary realism and took up increasingly varied topics and narrative forms. Prose fiction is now very popular.

The national poet of Pakistan, Muhammad Iqbal, wrote poetry in Urdu and Persian. He was a strong proponent of the political and spiritual revival of Islamic civilisation and encouraged Muslims all over the world to bring about a successful revolution. Well-known figures in contemporary Pakistani Urdu literature include Josh Malihabadi Faiz Ahmed Faiz and Saadat Hasan Manto. Sadequain and Gulgee are known for their calligraphy and paintings. The Sufi poets Shah Abdul Latif, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Bakhsh, and Khawaja Farid enjoy considerable popularity in Pakistan. Mirza Kalich Beg has been termed the father of modern Sindhi prose.[596] Historically, philosophical development in the country was dominated by Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Syed, Muhammad Asad, Maududi, and Mohammad Ali Johar.

Ideas from British and American philosophy greatly shaped philosophical development in Pakistan. Analysts such as M. M. Sharif and Zafar Hassan established the first major Pakistani philosophical movement in 1947. After the 1971 war, philosophers such as Jalaludin Abdur Rahim, Gianchandani, and Malik Khalid incorporated Marxism into Pakistan’s philosophical thinking. Influential work by Manzoor Ahmad, Jon Elia, Hasan Askari Rizvi, and Abdul Khaliq brought mainstream social, political, and analytical philosophy to the fore in academia. Works by Noam Chomsky have influenced philosophical ideas in various fields of social and political philosophy.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palau
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngerulmud

Palauan society follows a very strict matrilineal system. Matrilineal practices are seen in nearly every aspect of Palauan traditions, especially in funeral, marriage, inheritance and the passing of traditional titles.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrilineality

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Palestine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramallah
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza_City

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Palestine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Palestine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghassan_Kanafani
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud_Darwish

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Said

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reem_Kelani
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Trio_Joubran

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_City

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Panama
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamanian_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Panama

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Moresby

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Papua_New_Guinea
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Papua_New_Guinea

It is estimated that more than a thousand cultural groups exist in Papua New Guinea. Because of this diversity, many styles of cultural expression have emerged. Each group has created its own expressive forms in art, dance, weaponry, costumes, singing, music, architecture and much more.

Most of these cultural groups have their own language. People typically live in villages that rely on subsistence farming. In some areas people hunt and collect wild plants (such as yam roots) to supplement their diets. Those who become skilled at hunting, farming and fishing earn a great deal of respect.

On the Sepik river, there is a tradition of wood carving, often in the form of plants or animals, representing ancestor spirits.

Sea shells are no longer the currency of Papua New Guinea, as they were in some regions — sea shells were abolished as currency in 1933. This tradition is still present in local customs. In some cultures, to get a bride, a groom must bring a certain number of golden-edged clam shells as a bride price. In other regions, the bride price is paid in lengths of shell money, pigs, cassowaries or cash. Elsewhere, it is brides who traditionally pay a dowry.

People of the highlands engage in colourful local rituals that are called “sing sings”. They paint themselves and dress up with feathers, pearls and animal skins to represent birds, trees or mountain spirits. Sometimes an important event, such as a legendary battle, is enacted at such a musical festival.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraguay
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asunción

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Paraguay

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lima

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca_Garcilaso_de_la_Vega
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Vargas_Llosa

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions, though it has also been influenced by various Asian, African, and other European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.

During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cusco School are representative. Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century. Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.

Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma. The early 20th century’s Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría and José María Arguedas. César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.

Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking. Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru’s varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking. Peru’s diversity of ingredients and cooking techniques is receiving worldwide acclaim.

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots. In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments. Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the charango. African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument. Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, diablada and huayno.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manila

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_mythology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deities_of_Philippine_mythology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Philippines
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_the_Philippines

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibong_Adarna
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_de_la_Cruz
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Balagtas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Rizal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum,_Warsaw
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_John_Paul_II_Collection
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POLIN_Museum_of_the_History_of_Polish_Jews

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryszard_Kapuściński

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fryderyk_Chopin_Museum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frédéric_Chopin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luís_de_Camões

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Pessoa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Saramago

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doha

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Qatar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Islamic_Art,_Doha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathaf:_Arab_Museum_of_Modern_Art
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar_Museums_Authority

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Qatar

The music of Qatar is based on Bedouin poetry, song and dance. Traditional dances in Doha are performed on Friday afternoons; one such dance is the Ardah, a stylised martial dance performed by two rows of dancers who are accompanied by an array of percussion instruments, including al-ras (a large drum whose leather is heated by an open fire), tambourines and cymbals with small drums. Other percussion instruments used in folk music include galahs (a tall clay jar) and tin drinking cups known as tus or tasat, usually used in conjunction with a tabl, a longitudinal drum beaten with a stick. String instruments, such as the oud and rebaba, are also commonly used.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucharest

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore_of_Romania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Romania
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Romania
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_Romania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioan_Slavici
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panait_Istrati
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbu_Ștefănescu_Delavrancea
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucian_Blaga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liviu_Rebreanu
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihail_Sadoveanu
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristan_Tzara

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cărturești_Carusel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Enescu

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinu_Lipatti

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dada

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugène_Ionesco
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Cioran
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioan_Petru_Culianu

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergiu_Celibidache

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elie_Wiesel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Cărtărescu

The most striking thing about Romanian culture is the strong folk traditions which have survived to this day due to the rural character of the Romanian communities, which has resulted in an exceptionally vital and creative traditional culture. Romania’s rich folk traditions have been nourished by many sources, some of which predate the Roman occupation. Traditional folk arts include wood carving, ceramics, weaving and embroidery of costumes, household decorations, dance, and richly varied folk music. Ethnographers have tried to collect in the last two centuries as many elements as possible: the Museum of the Romanian Peasant and the Romanian Academy are currently the main institutions which systematically organise the data and continue the research.

Wood used to be the main construction material, and heavily ornamented wooden objects were common in old houses. In Maramureş, wood was used to create impressive structures such as churches or gates, in Dobruja, windmills were made of wood, and in mountainous regions hardwood was used even for covering the roof. To preserve traditional houses many village museums have been created in the last century throughout Romania, such as the Village Museum in Bucharest, the Traditional Popular Civilization ASTRA Museum in Sibiu, or the Oltenian Village Museum in Râmnicu Vâlcea.

Linen was the most common material for clothing, combined with wool during the winter or colder periods. These are embroidered with traditional motifs that vary from region to region. Black is the most common color used, but red and blue are predominant in certain areas. Traditionally, men wore a white shirt and pants (if made of wool they are called iţari) with wide a leather belt, usually over the shirt, and a vest sometimes made of leather and embroidered. They wore either boots or a simple shoe made of leather and tied around the foot called opincă and they wore a hat which differs in design from region to region. Women also wore a white skirt and a shirt with a vest. They wore an apron called şorţ or cătrinţă which is also embroidered and a headscarf called basma; on special occasions they wore more elaborate outfits.

Music and dance represent a lively part of the Romanian folklore and there are a great variety of musical genres and dances. Party music is very lively and shows both Balkan and Hungarian influences. Sentimental music, however, is the most valued, and Romanians consider their doina (a sad song either about one’s home or about love, composed like an epic ballad) unique in the world. Maria Tănase, Maria Lătăreţu, Maria Ciobanu and Ileana Sararoiu are considered to be some of the greatest Romanian folk singers and today Grigore Leşe and Taraful Haiducilor are two of the most famous musicians. The dances are lively and are practiced throughout Romania by a large number of professional and amateur groups, thus keeping the tradition alive; Hora is one of the most famous group dances but men’s folk dances such as căluşari are extremely complex and have been declared by UNESCO to be “Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritages of Humanity”.

Mythology
Romanians have had, from time immemorial, a myriad of customs, tales and poems about love, faith, kings, princesses, and witches. The ethnologists, poets, writers and historians have tried in recent centuries to collect and to preserve tales, poems, ballads and have tried to describe as well as possible the customs and habits related to different events and times of year. Customs related to certain times of year are the colinde, Romanian Christmas carols, sorcova on New Year’s Eve or the Mărţişor custom on the first day of March marking the spring. Other customs are presumably of pre-Christian pagan origin, like the Paparuda rain enchanting custom in the summer, or the masked folk theatre or Ursul (the bear) and Capra (the goat) in winter.

Perhaps the most successful collector of folk tales was the novelist and storyteller Ion Creangă, who in very picturesque language, shaped into their now-classic form stories like Harap Alb (roughly, “The White Prince”) or Fata babei şi fata moşului (roughly, “The old woman’s girl and the old man’s girl”). Also, the poet Vasile Alecsandri published the most successful version of the ballad Mioriţa (The Little Ewe), a sad, philosophical poem, centered on a simple action: the plot by two shepherds to kill a third shepherd because they envied his wealth. Another prolific editor of folk tales was Petre Ispirescu, who, in the 19th century published an impressive number of volumes containing a large number of short novels and tales from popular mythology. They are centered on popular characters like the prince Făt-Frumos (the Romanian “Prince Charming”), the princess Ileana Cosânzeana, the villain or monster Zmeu or Căpcăun, the dragon Balaur or fantastic superbeings like the good Zână and the evil Muma Pădurii.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novosibirsk
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yekaterinburg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizhny_Novgorod

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_culture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_traditions_and_superstitions
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Fairy_Tales
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_jokes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian-language_poets
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian-language_playwrights
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian-language_novelists
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_science_fiction_and_fantasy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_philosophers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_Russia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russian_animation

There are over 160 different ethnic groups and indigenous peoples in Russia. The country’s vast cultural diversity spans ethnic Russians with their Slavic Orthodox traditions, Tatars and Bashkirs with their Turkic Muslim culture, Buddhist nomadic Buryats and Kalmyks, Shamanistic peoples of the Extreme North and Siberia, highlanders of the Northern Caucasus, and Finno-Ugric peoples of the Russian North West and Volga Region.

Handicraft, like Dymkovo toy, khokhloma, gzhel and palekh miniature represent an important aspect of Russian folk culture. Ethnic Russian clothes include kaftan, kosovorotka and ushanka for men, sarafan and kokoshnik for women, with lapti and valenki as common shoes. The clothes of Cossacks from Southern Russia include burka and papaha, which they share with the peoples of the Northern Caucasus.

Russian cuisine widely uses fish, poultry, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for kvass, beer and vodka drinks. Black bread is rather popular in Russia, compared to the rest of the world. Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) is often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Chicken Kiev, pelmeni and shashlyk are popular meat dishes, the last two being of Tatar and Caucasus origin respectively. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret and dressed herring.

Russia’s large number of ethnic groups have distinctive traditions regarding folk music. Typical ethnic Russian musical instruments are gusli, balalaika, zhaleika, and garmoshka. Folk music had a significant influence on Russian classical composers, and in modern times it is a source of inspiration for a number of popular folk bands, like Melnitsa. Russian folk songs, as well as patriotic Soviet songs, constitute the bulk of the repertoire of the world-renowned Red Army choir and other popular ensembles.

Russians have many traditions, including the washing in banya, a hot steam bath somewhat similar to sauna. Old Russian folklore takes its roots in the pagan Slavic religion. Many Russian fairy tales and epic bylinas were adapted for animation films, or for feature movies by the prominent directors like Aleksandr Ptushko (Ilya Muromets, Sadko) and Aleksandr Rou (Morozko, Vasilisa the Beautiful). Russian poets, including Pyotr Yershov and Leonid Filatov, made a number of well-known poetical interpretations of the classical fairy tales, and in some cases, like that of Alexander Pushkin, also created fully original fairy tale poems of great popularity.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kigali

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Rwanda
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Rwanda

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Kagame
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Sehene
http://www.benjaminsehene.com/

Rwanda does not have a long history of written literature, but there is a strong oral tradition ranging from poetry to folk stories. In particular the pre-colonial royal court developed traditions of ibitekerezo (epic musical poetry), ubucurabwenge (royal genealogies typically recited at coronation ceremonies), and ibisigo (royal poems). Many of the country’s moral values and details of history have been passed down through the generations. The most famous Rwandan literary figure was Alexis Kagame (1912–1981), who carried out and published research into the oral tradition as well as writing his own poetry.

The Rwandan Genocide resulted in the emergence a literature of witness accounts, essays and fiction by a new generation of writers such as Benjamin Sehene. A number of films have been produced about the genocide, including the Golden Globe nominated Hotel Rwanda and Shooting Dogs, which was filmed in Rwanda itself, and featured survivors in the cast.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Rwanda)

Traditional music and dance are taught in “amatorero” dance groups, which are found across the country. The most famous of these is the Ballet National Urukerereza, which was created in the early 1970s to represent Rwanda in international events. Also famous were the Amasimbi n’amakombe and Irindiro dance troupes.

The ikinimba is perhaps the most revered musical tradition in Rwanda. It is a dance that tells the stories of Rwandan heroes and kings, accompanied by instruments like ingoma, ikembe, iningiri, umuduri and inanga. The inanga, a lyre-like string instrument, has been played many of Rwanda’s best-known performers, including Rujindiri, Sebatunzi, Rwishyura, Simparingoma, Sentoré, Kirusu, Sophie and Viateur Kabarira, and Simon Bikindi.

Jean-Paul Samputu, along with his group Ingeli, won two Kora awards (African Grammy awards) for “Most Inspiring Artist” and “Best Traditional Artist” in 2003 for their performance of neo-traditional Rwandan music. The group tours the world spreading the Christian message of peace and reconciliation, and helps raise money for the many orphans of Rwanda. In 2007 Samputu brought twelve of these orphans, known as Mizero Children of Rwanda, to tour the U.S. and Canada. Cyprien Kagorora was nominated for a 2005 Kora Award in the category of “Best Traditional Artist”. He is among the most recognizable male vocalists in Rwanda.

In the post-colonial period, Rwanda produced popular local bands like Imena, Nyampinga, Les 8 Anges, Les Fellows, Impala, Abamarungu, Los Compagnons de la Chanson, Bisa, Ingenzi, and Isibo y’Ishakwe. They took influences from across Africa, especially the Congo, as well as Caribbean zouk and reggae.

Socio-military unrest and violence led many Rwandans to move overseas in the late 20th century, bringing their country’s music to cities like Brussels and Paris. For many years, Rwandan-Belgian Cécile Kayirebwa was arguably the most internationally famous Rwandan musician. She is still played regularly on Rwandan radio stations. The late 1990s saw the arrival of Rwandan-Canadian Corneille and Jean-Paul Samputu.

The Rwandan genocide temporarily disrupted music production within Rwanda. In recent years music has gradually returned to the country, led by Rwandan youth. A crop of new stars has emerged, including such names as Kamichi, Kizito Mihigo, Aimé Murefu, Mani Martin, Tom Close, Urban Boyz, Miss Jojo, King James, Knowles, Dream Boys, Kitoko, Riderman, and Miss Shanel.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Rwanda)

Volcanoes National Park

Book, Lt. Gen. Roméo Dallaire, Shake Hands With The Devil : The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda
Book, David Belton, When The Hills Ask For Your Blood : A Personal Story of Genocide and Rwanda
Book, Stephen Kinzer, A Thousand Hills : Rwanda’s Rebirth and the Man Who Dreamed It

Film, Hotel Rwanda
Film, Shake Hands With The Devil
Film, Sometimes in April
Film, Shooting Dogs

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basseterre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Lucia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castries

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Saint_Lucia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Walcott

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingstown

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoan_mythology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoan_culture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Samoa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%27a_Samoa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoa_%27ava_ceremony

Albert Wendt is a significant Samoan writer whose novels and stories tell the Samoan experience. In 1989, his novel Flying Fox in a Freedom Tree was made into a feature film in New Zealand, directed by Martyn Sanderson. Another novel Sons for the Return Home had also been made into a feature film in 1979, directed by Paul Maunder. The late John Kneubuhl, born in American Samoa, was an accomplished playwright and screenwriter and writer. Sia Figiel won the 1997 Commonwealth Writers’ Prize for fiction in the south-east Asia/South Pacific region with her novel “Where We Once Belonged”. Momoe Malietoa Von Reiche is an internationally recognised poet and artist. Tusiata Avia is a performance poet. Her first book of poetry Wild Dogs Under My Skirt was published by Victoria University Press in 2004. Dan Taulapapa McMullin is an artist and writer. Other Samoan poets and writers include Sapa’u Ruperake Petaia, Eti Sa’aga and Savea Sano Malifa, the editor of the Samoa Observer.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoa)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marino

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/São_Tomé_and_Príncipe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/São_Tomé

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_São_Tomé_and_Príncipe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riyadh

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Saudi_Arabia

Bedouin poetry is a cultural tradition in Saudi Arabia. According to Sandra Mackey, author of The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom, “the role that formal poetry, prose, and oratory play in Saudi culture is totally alien to Western culture.” Mackey explained that the Bedouin poet was the origin of Saudi society’s traditionally strong attachment to the concept of language. She said that poetry “can arise in the most curious of situations” due to the role of poetry in Saudi culture.

Some Saudi novelists have had their books published in Aden, Yemen, because of censorship in Saudi Arabia. Despite signs of increasing openness, Saudi novelists and artists in film, theatre, and the visual arts used to face greater restrictions on their freedom of expression than in the West, things are starting to change nowadays and a lot of contemporary novelists and artists are being well known in Saudi Arabia and internationally.

Contemporary Saudi novelists and artists include:
Abdul Rahman Munif (many of his books were banned and his citizenship revoked)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Munif

Turki al-Hamad (subject of a fatwā and death threats)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turki_al-Hamad

Raja’a Alem
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raja%27a_Alem

Rajaa Al Sanie, author of best-selling novel Girls of Riyadh
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajaa_al-Sanea

Ghazi Abdul Rahman Al Gosaibi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghazi_Abdul_Rahman_Al_Gosaibi

Saad Al-Bazei
http://www.salbazei.com/Resources/?en=Home

Manal Al Dowayan
http://www.manaldowayan.com/index.html

Raja and Shadia Alem
http://shadiaalem-rajaalem.com/

Abdulnasser Gharem

Haifaa al-Mansour
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifaa_al-Mansour
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Saudi_Arabia)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Scotland

Scotland has a literary heritage dating back to the early Middle Ages. The earliest extant literature composed in what is now Scotland was in Brythonic speech in the 6th century, but is preserved as part of Welsh literature. Later medieval literature included works in Latin, Gaelic, Old English and French. The first surviving major text in Early Scots is the 14th-century poet John Barbour’s epic Brus, focusing on the life of Robert I, and was soon followed by a series of vernacular romances and prose works. In the 16th century, the crown’s patronage helped the development of Scots drama and poetry, but the accession of James VI to the English throne removed a major centre of literary patronage and Scots was sidelined as a literary language. Interest in Scots literature was revived in the 18th century by figures including James Macpherson, whose Ossian Cycle made him the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation and was a major influence on the European Enlightenment. It was also a major influence on Robert Burns, whom many consider the national poet, and Walter Scott, whose Waverley Novels did much to define Scottish identity in the 19th century. Towards the end of the Victorian era a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations as writers in English, including Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, J. M. Barrie and George MacDonald. In the 20th century the Scottish Renaissance saw a surge of literary activity and attempts to reclaim the Scots language as a medium for serious literature. Members of the movement were followed by a new generation of post-war poets including Edwin Morgan, who would be appointed the first Scots Makar by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004. From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, particularly associated with a group of writers including Irvine Welsh. Scottish poets who emerged in the same period included Carol Ann Duffy, who, in May 2009, was the first Scot named UK Poet Laureate.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griot
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegalese_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Senegal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youssou_N%27Dour

Senegal is well known for the West African tradition of storytelling, which is done by griots, who have kept West African history alive for thousands of years through words and music. The griot profession is passed down generation to generation and requires years of training and apprenticeship in genealogy, history and music. Griots give voice to generations of West African society.

The African Renaissance Monument built in 2010 in Dakar is the tallest statue in Africa. Dakar also hosts a film festival, Recidak.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal)

The Literature of Senegal is among the most important in West Africa. Most works are written in French, but there are also works in Arabic, Wolof and Pulaar. Senegalese literature has long been known worldwide through the writing of poet and statesman Léopold Sédar Senghor, a great defender of the French language and of Negritude. Other now-classic authors include novelists Cheikh Hamidou Kane, Birago Diop, Boubacar Boris Diop, and Ousmane Sembène. The latter is known for bringing some of his own novels to the screen. Major essayists include Cheikh Anta Diop and anthropologist Tidiane N’Diaye. Women writers have been particularly active. In 1980, Mariama Bâ described polygamous society with great sensitivity in Une si longue lettre. Aminata Sow Fall, in La Grève des Bàttu (1986), showed that the lower classes were not without resources. More recently, Fatou Diome has found success with Le Ventre de l’Atlantique (2004), a novel depicting, often with humor, the dreams of escape of Senegalese youth.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegalese_literature)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Léopold_Sédar_Senghor

Coming soon …

Coming soon …

Coming soon …

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Singapore
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singaporean_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Singapore

Coming soon …

Coming soon …

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honiara

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Solomon_Islands

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_the_Solomon_Islands

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogadishu

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Somalia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalian_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Somalia

Somali scholars have for centuries produced many notable examples of Islamic literature ranging from poetry to Hadith. With the adoption of the Latin alphabet in 1972 as the nation’s standard orthography, numerous contemporary Somali authors have also released novels, some of which have gone on to receive worldwide acclaim. Of these modern writers, Nuruddin Farah is probably the most celebrated. Books such as From a Crooked Rib and Links are considered important literary achievements, works that have earned Farah, among other accolades, the 1998 Neustadt International Prize for Literature. Faarax M.J. Cawl is another prominent Somali writer who is perhaps best known for his Dervish era novel, Ignorance is the enemy of love.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretoria
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloemfontein
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Town
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannesburg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_South_Africa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_poetry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_South_Africa

There are 11 national languages in South Africa. South Africa’s unique social and political history has generated a rich variety of literatures, with themes spanning pre-colonial life, the days of apartheid, and the lives of people in the “new South Africa”.

Many of the first black South African print authors were missionary-educated, and many thus wrote in either English or Afrikaans. One of the first well known novels written by a black author in an African language was Solomon Thekiso Plaatje’s Mhudi, written in 1930.

Notable white English-language South African authors include Nadine Gordimer who was, in Seamus Heaney’s words, one of “the guerrillas of the imagination”, and who became the first South African and the seventh woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991. Her most famous novel, July’s People, was released in 1981, depicting the collapse of white-minority rule.

Athol Fugard, whose plays have been regularly premiered in fringe theatres in South Africa, London (The Royal Court Theatre), and New York City. Olive Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm (1883) was a revelation in Victorian literature: it is heralded by many as introducing feminism into the novel form.

Alan Paton published the acclaimed novel Cry, the Beloved Country in 1948. He told the tale of a black priest who comes to Johannesburg to find his son, which became an international best-seller. During the 1950s, Drum magazine became a hotbed of political satire, fiction, and essays, giving a voice to urban black culture.

Afrikaans-language writers also began to write controversial material. Breyten Breytenbach was jailed for his involvement with the guerrilla movement against apartheid. Andre Brink was the first Afrikaner writer to be banned by the government after he released the novel A Dry White Season about a white South African who discovers the truth about a black friend who dies in police custody.

John Maxwell (JM) Coetzee was also first published in the 1970s, and became internationally recognize in 1983 with his Booker Prize-winning novel Life & Times of Michael K. His 1999 novel Disgrace won him his second Booker Prize as well as the 2000 Commonwealth Writers’ Prize. He is also the recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2003.

English writer J. R. R. Tolkien, author of The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarillion, was born in Bloemfontein in 1892.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_South_Africa)

Film, Tsotsi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsotsi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoul

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_South_Korea
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring,_Summer,_Fall,_Winter…_and_Spring

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibimbap

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Sudan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juba

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_South_Sudan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alek_Wek

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Spain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Spanish_Academy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instituto_Cervantes

The earliest recorded examples of vernacular Romance-based literature date from the same time and location, the rich mix of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian cultures in Muslim Spain, in which Maimonides, Averroes, and others worked, the Kharjas (Jarchas).

During the Reconquista, the epic poem Cantar de Mio Cid was written about a real man—his battles, conquests, and daily life. It is also remarkable the Valencian chivalric romance Tirant lo Blanch written in Valencian.

Other major plays from the medieval times were Mester de Juglaría, Mester de Clerecía, Coplas por la muerte de su padre or El Libro de buen amor (The Book of Good Love).

During the Renaissance the major plays are La Celestina and El Lazarillo de Tormes, while many religious literature was created with poets as Luis de León, San Juan de la Cruz, Santa Teresa de Jesús, etc.

The Baroque is the most important period for Spanish culture. We are in the times of the Spanish Empire. The famous Don Quijote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time. Other writers from the period are: Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca or Tirso de Molina.

During the Enlightenment we find names such as Leandro Fernández de Moratín, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos or Leandro Fernández de Moratín.

During the Romanticism, José Zorrilla created one of the most emblematic figures in European literature in Don Juan Tenorio. Other writers from this period are Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, José de Espronceda, Rosalía de Castro or Mariano José de Larra.

In Realism we find names such as Benito Pérez Galdós, Emilia Pardo Bazán, Leopoldo Alas (Clarín), Concepción Arenal, Vicente Blasco Ibáñez and Menéndez Pelayo. Realism offered depictions of contemporary life and society ‘as they were’. In the spirit of general “Realism”, Realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of romanticised or stylised presentations.

The group that has become known as the Generation of 1898 was marked by the destruction of Spain’s fleet in Cuba by US gunboats in 1898, which provoked a cultural crisis in Spain. The “Disaster” of 1898 led established writers to seek practical political, economic, and social solutions in essays grouped under the literary heading of Regeneracionismo. For a group of younger writers, among them Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, and José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), the Disaster and its cultural repercussions inspired a deeper, more radical literary shift that affected both form and content. These writers, along with Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Antonio Machado, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Ángel Ganivet, came to be known as the Generation of ’98.

The Generation of 1914 or Novecentismo. The next supposed “generation” of Spanish writers following those of ’98 already calls into question the value of such terminology. By the year 1914—the year of the outbreak of the First World War and of the publication of the first major work of the generation’s leading voice, José Ortega y Gasset—a number of slightly younger writers had established their own place within the Spanish cultural field.

Leading voices include the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez, the academics and essayists Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Gregorio Marañón, Manuel Azaña, Maria Zambrano, Eugeni d’Ors, Clara Campoamor and Ortega y Gasset, and the novelists Gabriel Miró, Ramón Pérez de Ayala, and Ramón Gómez de la Serna. While still driven by the national and existential questions that obsessed the writers of ’98, they approached these topics with a greater sense of distance and objectivity. Salvador de Madariaga, another prominent intellectual and writer, was one of the founders of the College of Europe and the composer of the constitutive manifest of the Liberal International.

The Generation of 1927, where poets Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, Federico García Lorca, Vicente Aleixandre, Dámaso Alonso. All were scholars of their national literary heritage, again evidence of the impact of the calls of regeneracionistas and the Generation of 1898 for Spanish intelligence to turn at least partially inwards.

The two main writers in the second half of the 20th century were the Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Camilo José Cela and Miguel Delibes from Generation of ’36. Spain is one of the countries with the most number of laureates with the Nobel Prize in Literature, and with Latin American laureates they made the Spanish language literature one of the most laureates of all. The Spanish writers are: José Echegaray, Jacinto Benavente, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Vicente Aleixandre and Camilo José Cela. The Portuguese writer José Saramago, also awarded with the prize, lived for many years in Spain and spoke both Portuguese and Spanish. Saramago was also well known by his Iberist ideas.

The Generation of ’50 are also known as the children of the civil war. Rosa Chacel, Gloria Fuertes, Jaime Gil de Biedma, Juan Goytisolo, Carmen Martín Gaite, Ana María Matute, Juan Marsé, Blas de Otero, Gabriel Celaya, Antonio Gamoneda, Rafael Sánchez Ferlosio or Ignacio Aldecoa.

Premio Planeta de Novela and Miguel de Cervantes Prize are the two main awards nowadays in Spanish literature.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain)

www.elmundo.es

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Jayawardenepura_Kotte
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombo

Colombo’s most beautiful festival is the celebration of Buddha’s birth, enlightenment and death all falling on the same day. In Sinhala this is known as Vesak. During this festival, much of the city is decorated with lanterns, lights and special displays of light (known as thoran). The festival falls in mid May and lasts a week. Many Sri Lankans visit the city to see the lantern competitions and decorations. During this week people distribute, rice, drinks and other food items for free in dunsal which means charity place. These dunsal are popular amongst visitors from the suburbs.

Since there is a large number of Muslims in Colombo. Eid Ul Fitr and Eid Ul Adha are two Islamic festivals that are celebrated in Colombo. Many businesses flourish during the eventual countdown for Eid Ul Fitr which is a major Islamic festival celebrated by Muslims after a month-long fasting. Colombo is generally very busy during the eve of the festivals as people do their last minute shopping.

Christmas is another major festival. Although Sri Lanka’s Christians make up only just over 7% of the population, Christmas is one of the island’s biggest festivals. Most streets and commercial buildings light up from the beginning of December and festive sales begin at all shopping centres and department stores. Caroling and nativity plays are frequent sights during the season.

The Sinhala and Hindu Aluth Awurudda’ is a cultural event that takes place on 13 and 14 April. This is the celebration of the Sinhala and Hindu new year. The festivities include many events and traditions that display a great deal of Sri Lankan culture. Several old clubs of the city give a glimpse of the British equestrian life style; these include the Colombo Club, Orient Club, the 80 Club, the Colombo Cricket Club.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khartoum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Sudan

Sudan has a rich and unique musical culture that has been through chronic instability and repression during the modern history of Sudan. Beginning with the imposition of strict Salafi interpretation of sharia law in 1989, many of the country’s most prominent poets, like Mahjoub Sharif, were imprisoned while others, like Mohammed el Amin (returned to Sudan in the mid-1990s) and Mohammed Wardi (returned to Sudan 2003), fled to Cairo. Traditional music suffered too, with traditional Zār ceremonies being interrupted and drums confiscated . At the same time European militaries contributed to the development of Sudanese music by introducing new instruments and styles; military bands, especially the Scottish bagpipes, were renowned, and set traditional music to military march music. The march March Shulkawi No 1, is an example, set to the sounds of the Shilluk. In northern Sudan different music from the rest of Sudan, is used as a type of music called (Aldlayib) used a musical instrument called (Tambur) are industry manually and has five strings and is made from wood and made wonderful music accompanied by the voices of human applause and singing artists give a perfect blend gives the area Northern State special character.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriname
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramaribo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaziland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbabane
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobamba

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Swaziland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Swaziland

The principal Swazi social unit is the homestead, a traditional beehive hut thatched with dry grass. In a polygamous homestead, each wife has her own hut and yard surrounded by reed fences. There are three structures for sleeping, cooking, and storage (brewing beer). In larger homesteads there are also structures used as bachelors’ quarters and guest accommodation.

Central to the traditional homestead is the cattle byre, a circular area enclosed by large logs interspaced with branches. The cattle byre has ritual as well as practical significance as a store of wealth and symbol of prestige. It contains sealed grain pits. Facing the cattle byre is the great hut which is occupied by the mother of the headman.

The headman is central to all homestead affairs and he is often polygamous. He leads through example and advises his wives on all social affairs of the home as well as seeing to the larger survival of the family. He also spends time socialising with the young boys, who are often his sons or close relatives, advising them on the expectations of growing up and manhood.

The Sangoma is a traditional diviner chosen by the ancestors of that particular family. The training of the Sangoma is called “kwetfwasa”. At the end of the training, a graduation ceremony takes place where all the local sangoma come together for feasting and dancing. The diviner is consulted for various reasons, such as the cause of sickness or even death. His diagnosis is based on “kubhula”, a process of communication, through trance, with the natural superpowers. The Inyanga (a medical and pharmaceutical specialist in western terms) possesses the bone throwing skill (“kushaya ematsambo”) used to determine the cause of the sickness.

The most important cultural event in Swaziland is the Incwala ceremony. It is held on the fourth day after the full moon nearest the longest day, 21 December. Incwala is often translated in English as “first fruits ceremony”, but the King’s tasting of the new harvest is only one aspect among many in this long pageant. Incwala is best translated as “Kingship Ceremony”: when there is no king, there is no Incwala. It is high treason for any other person to hold an Incwala.

Every Swazi may take part in the public parts of the Incwala. The climax of the event is the fourth day of the Big Incwala. The key figures are the King, Queen Mother, royal wives and children, the royal governors (indunas), the chiefs, the regiments, and the “bemanti” or “water people”.

Swaziland’s most well-known cultural event is the annual Umhlanga Reed Dance. In the eight-day ceremony, girls cut reeds and present them to the queen mother and then dance. (There is no formal competition.) It is done in late August or early September. Only childless, unmarried girls can take part. The aims of the ceremony are to preserve girls’ chastity, provide tribute labour for the Queen mother, and to encourage solidarity by working together. The royal family appoints a commoner maiden to be “induna” (captain) of the girls and she announces over the radio the dates of the ceremony. She will be an expert dancer and knowledgeable on royal protocol. One of the King’s daughters will be her counterpart.

The Reed Dance today is not an ancient ceremony but a development of the old “umchwasho” custom. In “umchwasho”, all young girls were placed in a female age-regiment. If any girl became pregnant outside of marriage, her family paid a fine of one cow to the local chief. After a number of years, when the girls had reached a marriageable age, they would perform labour service for the Queen Mother, ending with dancing and feasting. The country was under the chastity rite of “umchwasho” until 19 August 2005.

Swaziland is also known for a strong presence in the handcrafts industry. The formalised handcraft businesses of Swaziland employ over 2,500 people, many of whom are women (per TechnoServe Swaziland Handcrafts Impact Study, February 2011). The products are unique and reflect the culture of Swaziland, ranging from housewares, to artistic decorations, to complex glass, stone, or wood artwork.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaziland)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_literature

www.robertwalser.ch

As the Confederation, from its foundation in 1291, was almost exclusively composed of German-speaking regions, the earliest forms of literature are in German. In the 18th century, French became the fashionable language in Bern and elsewhere, while the influence of the French-speaking allies and subject lands was more marked than before.

Among the classics of Swiss German literature are Jeremias Gotthelf (1797–1854) and Gottfried Keller (1819–1890). The undisputed giants of 20th century Swiss literature are Max Frisch (1911–91) and Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1921–90), whose repertoire includes Die Physiker (The Physicists) and Das Versprechen (The Pledge), released in 2001 as a Hollywood film.

Prominent French-speaking writers were Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) and Germaine de Staël (1766–1817). More recent authors include Charles Ferdinand Ramuz (1878–1947), whose novels describe the lives of peasants and mountain dwellers, set in a harsh environment and Blaise Cendrars (born Frédéric Sauser, 1887–1961). Also Italian and Romansh-speaking authors contributed but in more modest way given their small number.

Probably the most famous Swiss literary creation, Heidi, the story of an orphan girl who lives with her grandfather in the Alps, is one of the most popular children’s books ever and has come to be a symbol of Switzerland. Her creator, Johanna Spyri (1827–1901), wrote a number of other books on similar themes.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs

Adunis / Adonis:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adunis

Nizar Qabbani:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizar_Qabbani

Zakaria Tamer, Short Story Writer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakaria_Tamer

Author – Novelist and Poet: Salim Barakat
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salim_Barakat

Ghadah Al-Samman:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghada_al-Samman

YouTube, Quieter Than Silence | Full Concert | Mehdi Aminian & Mohamad Zatari

How did yerba mate arrive in the Middle East?
I guess to answer this question, we have to take a step back and talk a little bit about History. The first wave of Arabs came to South America around the 1860s. Around this time, Pedro II Emperor of Brazil travelled to modern day Lebanon and was amazed with the culture he found there. Upon his return to South America, he arranged for several Arab immigrants to settle in regions bordering Argentina and Paraguay (modern day Parana).

Around the same time, many other Syrian and Lebanese immigrants were making their way into Argentina in order to escape persecution by the Ottoman Turks and the Italo-Turkish War.  When they were first processed in the ports of Argentina, they were classified as Turks because what is modern day Lebanon and Syria was a territory of the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Even today, we still call all Arabs “Turks” in most regions of Brazil.

Around the 1940s the number of Arab immigrants, mainly from Syria and Lebanon, increased again because young people were called to fight in World War II (Syria and Lebanon were French colonies); this number increased further during the Lebanese civil war, which began in 1958.

Finally in the mid 1970s, the number of immigrants decreased dramatically, due to the poor instable economic situation of most South American countries and the oil boom in Arab countries. It was also around this time that many Lebanese and Syrian immigrants returned to their homeland, taking with them the acquired habit o drinking yerba mate.

Today, Syria remains the biggest importer of yerba mate in the world, importing 15,000 tons a year. It is mostly the Druze community in Syria and Lebanon who maintain the culture and practice of mate.
(http://www.yerbamateblog.com/yerba-mate-traditions-lebanon-syria/)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dushanbe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfara

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Tajikistan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajik_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Tajikistan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan_National_Museum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Unity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dushanbe_Flagpole
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurminj_Museum_of_Musical_Instruments

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudaki

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurugli

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadriddin_Ayni
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loiq_Sher-Ali
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolqasem_Lahouti
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirzo_Tursunzoda

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasir_Khusraw

Culture
The Tajik language is the mother tongue of around 80% of the citizens of Tajikistan. The main urban centres in today’s Tajikistan include Dushanbe (the capital), Khujand, Kulob, Panjakent, Qurghonteppa, Khorugh and Istaravshan. There are also Uzbek, Kyrgyz and Russian minorities.

The Pamiri people of Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the southeast, bordering Afghanistan and China, though considered part of the Tajik ethnicity, nevertheless are distinct linguistically and culturally from most Tajiks. In contrast to the mostly Sunni Muslim residents of the rest of Tajikistan, the Pamiris overwhelmingly follow the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam, and speak a number of Eastern Iranian languages, including Shughni, Rushani, Khufi and Wakhi. Isolated in the highest parts of the Pamir Mountains, they have preserved many ancient cultural traditions and folk arts that have been largely lost elsewhere in the country.

The Yaghnobi people live in mountainous areas of northern Tajikistan. The estimated number of Yaghnobis is now about 25,000. Forced migrations in the 20th century decimated their numbers. They speak the Yaghnobi language, which is the only direct modern descendant of the ancient Sogdian language.

Tajikistan artisans created the Dushanbe Tea House, which was presented in 1988 as a gift to the sister city of Boulder, Colorado.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daler_Nazarov
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurabek_Murodov
Singer, Isroil Faiziddinov
Rock Musical Group, Shams
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobovar_Chanorov

http://www.akdn.org/our-agencies/aga-khan-trust-culture/akmi/cd-dvd-series/badakhshan-ensemble
https://folkways.si.edu/dance-pamir-mountains/central-asia-sacred-spoken-word-world/music/video/smithsonian

Book, Benjamin D. Koen, Beyond the Roof of the World: Music, Prayer, and Healing in the Pamir Mountains

Music Festival, Roof of the World
http://www.pamirtours.tj/

Tajik cities now in Uzbekistan:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukhara
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkand

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzania
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodoma
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Togo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lomé

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukuʻalofa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Spain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaguanas

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisian_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Tunisia

Literature
Tunisian literature exists in two forms: Arabic and French except for one author and translator. Arabic literature dates back to the 7th century with the arrival of Arab civilization in the region. It is more important in both volume and value than French literature, introduced during the French protectorate from 1881.

Among the literary figures include Ali Douagi, who has produced more than 150 radio stories, over 500 poems and folk songs and nearly 15 plays, Khraief Bashir, an Arabic novelist who published many notable books in the 1930s and which caused a scandal because the dialogues were written in Tunisian dialect, and others such as Moncef Ghachem, Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad, or Mahmoud Messadi.

As for poetry, Tunisian poetry typically opts for nonconformity and innovation with poets such as Aboul-Qacem Echebbi.

As for literature in French, it is characterized by its critical approach. Contrary to the pessimism of Albert Memmi, who predicted that Tunisian literature was sentenced to die young, a high number of Tunisian writers are abroad including Abdelwahab Meddeb, Bakri Tahar, Mustapha Tlili, Hele Beji, or Mellah Fawzi. The themes of wandering, exile and heartbreak are the focus of their creative writing.

The national bibliography lists 1249 non-school books published in 2002 in Tunisia, with 885 titles in Arabic. In 2006 this figure had increased to 1,500 and 1,700 in 2007. Nearly a third of the books are published for children.

In 2014 Tunisian American creative nonfiction scribe and translator Med-Ali Mekki who wrote many books, not for publication but just for his own private reading translated the new Constitution of the Tunisian Republic from Arabic to English for the first time in Tunisian bibliographical history, the book was published worldwide the following year and it was the Internet’s most viewed and downloaded Tunisian book.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia)

Music
At the beginning of the 20th century, musical activity was dominated by the liturgical repertoire associated with different religious brotherhoods and secular repertoire which consisted of instrumental pieces and songs in different Andalusian forms and styles of origins, essentially borrowing characteristics of musical language. In 1930 “The Rachidia” was founded well known thanks to artists from the Jewish community. The founding in 1934 of a musical school helped revive Arab Andalusian music largely to a social and cultural revival led by the elite of the time who became aware of the risks of loss of the musical heritage and which they believed threatened the foundations of Tunisian national identity. The institution did not take long to assemble a group of musicians, poets, scholars. The creation of Radio Tunis in 1938 allowed musicians a greater opportunity to disseminate their works.

Notable Tunisian musicians include Saber Rebaï, Dhafer Youssef, Belgacem Bouguenna, Sonia M’barek and Latifa, Salah El Mahdi, Anouar Brahem, and Lotfi Bouchnak.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankara
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul

Musician, Erdal Erzincan
Musician, Kemal Dinç
Musician, Ahmet Aslan

Musician, Mercan Dede

Musicians, Taksim Trio

Music Shop, Istanbul, http://www.yilmazsazevi.com.tr/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashgabat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuvalu
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funafuti

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampala

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiev

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Dhabi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabati
https://sheikhmohammed.ae/en-us/HHNabatiPoetry

https://www.louvreabudhabi.ae/

Book, Said Salman Abu Athera, The Nabati Poetry of the United Arab Emirates : Selected Poems, Annotated and Translated into English, 2011

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettysburg_Address

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Help_(film)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montevideo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacio_Quiroga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Galeano

José Enrique Rodó (1871–1917), a modernist, is considered Uruguay’s most significant literary figure. His book Ariel (1900) deals with the need to maintain spiritual values while pursuing material and technical progress. Besides stressing the importance of upholding spiritual over materialistic values, it also stresses resisting cultural dominance by Europe and the United States. The book continues to influence young writers. Notable amongst Latin American playwrights is Florencio Sánchez (1875–1910), who wrote plays about contemporary social problems that are still performed today.

From about the same period came the romantic poetry of Juan Zorrilla de San Martín (1855–1931), who wrote epic poems about Uruguayan history. Also notable are Juana de Ibarbourou (1895–1979), Delmira Agustini (1866–1914), Idea Vilariño (1920–2009), and the short stories of Horacio Quiroga and Juan José Morosoli (1899–1959). The psychological stories of Juan Carlos Onetti (such as “No Man’s Land” and “The Shipyard”) have earned widespread critical praise, as have the writings of Mario Benedetti.

Uruguay’s best-known contemporary writer is Eduardo Galeano, author of Las venas abiertas de América Latina (1971; “Open Veins of Latin America”) and the trilogy Memoria del fuego (1982–87; “Memory of Fire”). Other modern Uruguayan writers include Mario Levrero, Sylvia Lago, Jorge Majfud, and Jesús Moraes. Uruguayans of many classes and backgrounds enjoy reading historietas, comic books that often blend humour and fantasy with thinly veiled social criticism.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay

[Montevideo] has a long and rich literary tradition. Although Uruguayan literature is not limited to the authors of the capital (Horacio Quiroga was born in Salto and Mario Benedetti in Paso de los Toros, for instance), Montevideo has been and is the centre of the editorial and creative activity of literature.

In 1900, the city had a remarkable group of writers, including José Enrique Rodó, Carlos Vaz Ferreira, Julio Herrera y Reissig, Delmira Agustini and Felisberto Hernández. Montevideo was then called the “Atenas del Plata” or the “Athens of the Rio de la Plata”.

Among the outstanding authors of Montevideo of the second half of the 20th century are Juan Carlos Onetti, Antonio Larreta, Eduardo Galeano, Marosa di Giorgio and Cristina Peri Rossi.

A new generation of writers have become known internationally in recent years. These include Eduardo Espina (essayist and poet), Fernando Butazzoni (novelist), Rafael Courtoisie (poet) and Hugo Burel (short story writer and novelist).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montevideo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashkent

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanuatu
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Vila

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_City

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracas

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanoi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_poetry

Book, Christopher Goscha, The Penguin History of Modern Vietnam
Book, Bill Hayton, Vietnam : Rising Dragon
Book, Nigel Cawthorne, Vietnam : A War Lost and Won
Book, Max Hastings, Vietnam : An Epic Tragedy
Book, Ben Kiernan, Viet Nam : A History from Earliest Times to the Present
Book, Graham Greene, The Quiet American

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiff

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dylan_Thomas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thomas_(poet)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._S._Thomas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedd_Wyn

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Burton
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Hopkins

Mythology
The remnants of the native Celtic mythology of the pre-Christian Britons was passed down orally, in much-altered form, by the cynfeirdd (the early poets). Some of their work survives in much later medieval Welsh manuscripts, known as: the Black Book of Carmarthen and the Book of Aneirin (both 13th-century); the Book of Taliesin and the White Book of Rhydderch (both 14th-century); and the Red Book of Hergest (c. 1400). The prose stories from the White and Red Books are known as the Mabinogion, a title given to them by their first translator, Lady Charlotte Guest, and also used by subsequent translators. Poems such as Cad Goddeu (The Battle of the Trees) and mnemonic list-texts like the Welsh Triads and the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain, also contain mythological material. These texts also include the earliest forms of the Arthurian legend and the traditional history of post-Roman Britain.

Other sources of Welsh folklore include the 9th-century Latin historical compilation Historia Britonum (the History of the Britons) and Geoffrey of Monmouth’s 12th-century Latin chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae (the History of the Kings of Britain), as well as later folklore, such as The Welsh Fairy Book by W. Jenkyn Thomas

Literature
Wales can claim one of the oldest unbroken literary traditions in Europe. The literary tradition of Wales stretches back to the sixth century and includes Geoffrey of Monmouth and Gerald of Wales, regarded by historian John Davies as among the finest Latin authors of the Middle Ages. The earliest body of Welsh verse, by poets Taliesin and Aneirin, survive not in their original form, but in medieval versions and have undergone significant linguistic changes. Welsh poetry and native lore and learning survived the Dark Ages, through the era of the Poets of the Princes (c. 1100 – 1280) and then the Poets of the Gentry (c. 1350 – 1650). The Poets of the Princes were professional poets who composed eulogies and elegies to the Welsh princes while the Poets of the Gentry were a school of poets that favoured the cywydd metre. The period is notable for producing one of Wales’ greatest poets, Dafydd ap Gwilym. After the Anglicisation of the gentry the tradition declined.

Despite the extinction of the professional poet, the integration of the native elite into a wider cultural world did bring other literary benefits. Renaissance scholars such as William Salesbury and John Davies brought humanist ideals from English universities when they returned to Wales. While in 1588 William Morgan became the first person to translate the Bible into Welsh, from Greek and Hebrew. From the 16th century onwards the proliferation of the ‘free-metre’ verse became the most important development in Welsh poetry, but from the middle of the 17th century a host of imported accentual metres from England became very popular. By the 19th century the creation of a Welsh epic, fuelled by the eisteddfod, became an obsession with Welsh-language writers. The output of this period was prolific in quantity but unequal in quality. Initially the eisteddfod was askance with the religious denominations, but in time these bodies came to dominate the competitions, with the bardic themes becoming increasingly scriptural and didactic. The period is notable for the adoption by Welsh poets of bardic names, made popular by the eisteddfod movement.

Major developments in 19th-century Welsh literature include Lady Charlotte Guest’s translation of the Mabinogion, one of the most important medieval Welsh prose tales of Celtic mythology, into English. 1885 saw the publication of Rhys Lewis by Daniel Owen, credited as the first novel written in the Welsh language. The 20th century experienced an important shift away from the stilted and long-winded Victorian Welsh prose, with Thomas Gwynn Jones leading the way with his 1902 work Ymadawiad Arthur. The slaughter in the trenches of the First World War had a profound effect on Welsh literature with a more pessimistic style of prose championed by T. H. Parry-Williams and R. Williams Parry. The industrialisation of south Wales saw a further shift with the likes of Rhydwen Williams who used the poetry and metre of a bygone rural Wales but in the context of an industrial landscape. Though the inter-war period is dominated by Saunders Lewis, for his political and reactionary views as much as his plays, poetry and criticism.

The careers of some 1930s writers continued after World War Two, including those of Gwyn Thomas, Vernon Watkins, and Dylan Thomas, whose most famous work Under Milk Wood was first broadcast in 1954. Thomas was one of the most notable and popular Welsh writers of the 20th century and one of the most innovative poets of his time. Gwyn Thomas became the voice of the English-speaking Welsh valleys with his humorous take on grim lives.

The attitude of the post-war generation of Welsh writers in English towards Wales differs from the previous generation, in that they were more sympathetic to Welsh nationalism and to the Welsh language. The change can be linked to the nationalist fervour generated by Saunders Lewis and the burning of the Bombing School on the Lleyn Peninsula in 1936, along with a sense of crisis generated by World War II. In poetry R. S. Thomas (1913–2000) was the most important figure throughout the second half of the twentieth century. While he “did not learn the Welsh language until he was 30 and wrote all his poems in English”, he wanted the Welsh language to be made the first language of Wales, and the official policy of bilingualism abolished.

The major novelist in the second half of the twentieth century was Emyr Humphreys (1919), who during his long writing career published over twenty novels, which surveys the political and cultural history of twentieth-century Wales. Another novelist of the post-Second-World-War era was Raymond Williams (1921–88). Born near Abergavenny, Williams continued the earlier tradition of writing from a left-wing perspective on the Welsh industrial scene in his trilogy “Border Country” (1960), “Second Generation” (1964), and “The Fight for Manod” (1979). He also enjoyed a reputation as a cultural historian.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sana%27a

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Zimbabwe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbira

Zimbabwe (/zɪmˈbɑːbweɪ/), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe[13], is a landlocked country located in southern Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa, Botswana, Zambia and Mozambique. The capital and largest city is Harare. A country of roughly 16 million people, Zimbabwe has 16 official languages,[3] with English, Shona, and Ndebele the most commonly used.

Arts
Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include pottery, basketry, textiles, jewellery and carving. Among the distinctive qualities are symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a single piece of wood. Shona sculpture has become world-famous in recent years having found popularity in the 1940s. Most subjects of carved figures of stylised birds and human figures among others are made with sedimentary rocks such as soapstone, as well as harder igneous rocks such as serpentine and the rare stone verdite. Zimbabwean artefacts can be found in countries like Singapore, China and Canada. i.e. Dominic Benhura’s statue in the Singapore Botanic Gardens.

Shona sculpture in has survived through the ages and the modern style is a fusion of African folklore with European influences. World-renowned Zimbabwean sculptors include Nicholas, Nesbert and Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi and Locardia Ndandarika. Internationally, Zimbabwean sculptors have managed to influence a new generation of artists, particularly Black Americans, through lengthy apprenticeships with master sculptors in Zimbabwe. Contemporary artists like New York sculptor M. Scott Johnson and California sculptor Russel Albans have learned to fuse both African and Afro-diasporic aesthetics in a way that travels beyond the simplistic mimicry of African Art by some Black artists of past generations in the United States.

Several authors are well known within Zimbabwe and abroad. Charles Mungoshi is renowned in Zimbabwe for writing traditional stories in English and in Shona and his poems and books have sold well with both the black and white communities. Catherine Buckle has achieved international recognition with her two books African Tears and Beyond Tears which tell of the ordeal she went through under the 2000 Land Reform. The first Prime Minister of Rhodesia, Ian Smith, wrote two books – The Great Betrayal and Bitter Harvest. The book The House of Hunger by Dambudzo Marechera won an award in the UK in 1979 and the Nobel Prize-winning author Doris Lessing’s first novel The Grass Is Singing, the first four volumes of The Children of Violence sequence, as well as the collection of short stories African Stories are set in Rhodesia. In 2013 NoViolet Bulawayo’s novel We Need New Names was shortlisted for the Booker Prize. The novel tells the story of the devastation and emigration caused by the brutal suppression of Zimbabwean civilians during the Gukurahundi in the early 1980s.

Internationally famous artists include Henry Mudzengerere and Nicolas Mukomberanwa. A recurring theme in Zimbabwean art is the metamorphosis of man into beast. Zimbabwean musicians like Thomas Mapfumo, Oliver Mtukudzi, the Bhundu Boys; Alick Macheso and Audius Mtawarira have achieved international recognition. Among members of the white minority community, Theatre has a large following, with numerous theatrical companies performing in Zimbabwe’s urban areas.

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(Rutendo Tavengerwei)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petina_Gappah

(Rutendo) (Petina) (Vonai) (Jenifer)